Effects of Histone H2B Ubiquitylations and H3K79me on Transcription Elongation.

Post-translational modifications of histone proteins often mediate gene regulation by altering the global and local stability of the nucleosome, the basic gene-packing unit of eukaryotes. We employed semisynthetic approaches to introduce histone H2B ubiquitylations at K34 (H2BK34ub) and K120 (H2BK120ub) and H3K79 trimethylation (H3K79me3). With these modified histones, we investigated their effects on the kinetics of transcription elongation by RNA polymerase II (Pol II) using single-molecule FRET.

The Effects of Histone H2B ubiquitylations and H3K79me on Transcription Elongation.

Post-translational modifications of histone proteins often mediate gene regulation by altering the global and local stability of the nucleosome, the basic gene-packing unit of eukaryotes. We employed semi-synthetic approaches to introduce histone H2B ubiquitylations at K34 (H2BK34ub) and K120 (H2BK120ub) and H3 K79 trimethylation (H3K79me3). With these modified histones, we investigated their effects on the kinetics of transcription elongation by RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) using single-molecule FRET.

The Effects of Histone H2B Ubiquitylations on the Nucleosome Structure and Internucleosomal Interactions.

Eukaryotic gene compaction takes place at multiple levels to package DNA to chromatin and chromosomes. Two of the most fundamental levels of DNA packaging are at the nucleosome and dinucleosome stacks. The nucleosome is the basic gene-packing unit and is composed of DNA wrapped around a histone core.

Histone Modifications, Internucleosome Dynamics, and DNA Stresses: How They Cooperate to "Functionalize" Nucleosomes.

Tight packaging of DNA in chromatin severely constrains DNA accessibility and dynamics. In contrast, nucleosomes in active chromatin state are highly flexible, can exchange their histones, and are virtually "transparent" to RNA polymerases, which transcribe through gene bodies at rates comparable to that of naked DNA. Defining mechanisms that revert nucleosome repression, in addition to their value for basic science, is of key importance for the diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases.

"Direct" and "Indirect" Effects of Histone Modifications: Modulation of Sterical Bulk as a Novel Source of Functionality.

The chromatin-regulatory principles of histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) are discussed with a focus on the potential alterations in chromatin functional state due to steric and mechanical constraints imposed by bulky histone modifications such as ubiquitin and SUMO. In the classical view, PTMs operate as recruitment platforms for histone "readers," and as determinants of chromatin array compaction. Alterations of histone charges by "small" chemical modifications (e.

The intrinsic stability of H2B-ubiquitylated nucleosomes and their in vitro assembly/disassembly by histone chaperone NAP1.

Background: Apart the gene-regulatory functions as docking sites for histone 'readers', some histone modifications could directly affect nucleosome structure. The H2BK34-ubiquitylation deposited by MOF-MSL complex, increases nucleosome dynamics in vitro and promotes donation of one H2A/H2B dimer to histone acceptors.

Methods: We evaluated temperature-depended stability of H2BK34-ubiquitylated nucleosomes under 'physiological' ionic conditions in the presence or absence of histone acceptor, and examined assembly and disassembly of ubiquitylated nucleosomes in vitro by recombinant mouse NAP1.

Ubiquitylation: How Nucleosomes Use Histones to Evict Histones.

Steric hindrances by bulky histone modifications (such as ubiquitylation) could destabilize and remodel canonical nucleosome structure. This highlights a novel mechanism by which bulky modifications directly regulate chromatin, distinct from the more generally accepted roles of histone modifications in the recruitment of downstream effectors and histone charge shielding.

Analysis of histone ubiquitylation by MSL1/MSL2 proteins in vitro.

Histone posttranslational modifications (PTM) control gene activity by targeting chromatin-regulatory proteins. By altering histone charges PTMs could also modulate inter- and intra-nucleosomal interactions, and thus affect chromatin high-order compaction and nucleosome stochastic folding, respectively. However, recently it has been shown that histone H2BK34- ubiquitylation (which is deposited in vivo by MOF-MSL) can destabilize one of the nucleosomal H2A-H2B dimers in symmetrically and (albeit to a lesser extend) asymmetrically modified nucleosomes, and thus promote formation of a hexasome particle.

Effects of DNA Superhelical Stress on the Stability of H2B-Ubiquitylated Nucleosomes.

On the nucleosome level, histone posttranslational modifications function mainly as the regulatory signals; in addition, some posttranslational modifications can enhance nucleosome stochastic folding, which is restricted in "canonic" nucleosomes. Recently, it has been shown in vitro that symmetric or asymmetric nucleosome ubiquitylation at H2BK34 (and H2BK120, to a lesser extent) can destabilize one of the nucleosomal H2A-H2B dimers and promote nucleosome conversion to a hexasome particle [Krajewski et al. (2018).

Effects of histone H2B ubiquitylation on the nucleosome structure and dynamics.

DNA in nucleosomes has restricted nucleosome dynamics and is refractory to DNA-templated processes. Histone post-translational modifications play important roles in regulating DNA accessibility in nucleosomes. Whereas most histone modifications function either by mitigating the electrostatic shielding of histone tails or by recruiting 'reader' proteins, we show that ubiquitylation of H2B K34, which is located in a tight space protected by two coils of DNA superhelix, is able to directly influence the canonical nucleosome conformation via steric hindrances by ubiquitin groups.

On the role of inter-nucleosomal interactions and intrinsic nucleosome dynamics in chromatin function.

Evidence is emerging that many diseases result from defects in gene functions, which, in turn, depend on the local chromatin environment of a gene. However, it still remains not fully clear how chromatin activity code is 'translated' to the particular 'activating' or 'repressing' chromatin structural transition. Commonly, chromatin remodeling in vitro was studied using mononucleosomes as a model.

A composite agarose-polyacrylamide matrix as two-dimensional hard support for solid-phase protein assays.

The solid-phase protein assays using blotting membranes as hard support do not allow achieving the low background and sensitivity of protein staining in clear gels. The membrane opacity complicates imaging of results on standard lab documentation systems. We describe a low-cost transparent matrix that can be used as an alternative to polymeric membranes for solid-phase assays.

Mobilization of hyperacetylated mononucleosomes by purified yeast ISW2 in vitro.

Catalytic activity of ISWI chromatin remodelers, which regulate nucleosome positioning on the DNA, depends on interactions of the putative acidic patch in ISWI helicase domain with the N-termini of nucleosomal H4--such, that removal of H4 termini abolishes ISWI remodeling. Acetylation of H4 termini is also known to disrupt H4 interactions with acidic protein surfaces, and thus, histone acetylation could potentially impede ISWI functions. Since active chromatin in vivo is hyperacetylated, it is important to clarify if ISWI activities can function on the in vivo hyperacetylated nucleosomes.

A simple and cost-effective solid-phase protein nano-assay using polyacrylamide-coated glass plates.

A new solid-phase protein nano-assay is suggested for simple and sensitive estimation of protein content in sample buffers (a 1-μl sample is sufficient for analysis). The assay is different from conventional "on-filter" assays in that it uses inexpensive fully transparent polyacrylamide gel (PAAG)-coated glass plates as solid support and, thus, combines the convenience of "on-membrane" staining with the sensitivity and ease of documentation of "in-gel" staining (and, therefore, is especially suited for standard lab gel documentation systems). The PAAG plates assay is compatible with all dyes for in-gel protein staining.

Yeast Isw1a and Isw1b exhibit similar nucleosome mobilization capacities for mononucleosomes, but differently mobilize dinucleosome templates.

Nucleosome remodeling studies in vitro have primarily focused on the use of mononucleosome templates, which, however, can provide only limited information on how nucleosome mobilization occurs in the context of chromatin, in which internucleosome interactions might influence remodeling. We tried to evaluate whether nucleosome mobilization by yeast Isw1a, Isw1b and Isw2 could be affected by neighboring nucleosomes. We compared mono- and dinucleosomes positioned by the '601' sequence, the studied constructs contain variation in linker length between nucleosomes and variation in the length of flanking sequences.

Comparison of the Isw1a, Isw1b, and Isw2 nucleosome disrupting activities.

The three Saccharomyces cerevisiae ISWI chromatin remodeling complexes, Isw1a, Isw1b, and Isw2, are implicated in the regularization of arrayed nucleosomes and regulation of gene activity. Although Isw1a and Isw1b are based on the same catalytic unit, in general, their functions in vivo do not overlap. To better understand the structural consequences of these complexes, we compared the putative nucleosome disrupting activities of the purified Isw1a, Isw1b, and Isw2.

Isw1a does not have strict limitations on the length of extranucleosomal DNAs for mobilization of nucleosomes assembled with HeLa cell histones.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae Isw1a and Isw2 ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes have important roles in vivo in the regulation of nucleosome positioning and modulation of gene activity. We studied the ability of the Isw1a- and Isw2-remodeling enzymes to reposition nucleosomes in mono- and dinucleosomes templates with variably positioned histone octamers (in the center or at the ends of the DNA fragment). To compare the Isw1a and Isw2 nucleosome-mobilizing activities, we utilized mono- and dinucleosome templates reconstituted with purified HeLa cell histones and DNA containing one or two copies of the "601" nucleosome high-affinity sequence used to specifically position nucleosomes on the DNA.

Remodeling of nucleosome-dimer particles with yIsw2 promotes their association with ALL-1 SET domain in vitro.

Functioning of histone lysine methyltransferases (HKMTs) involves interactions of their catalytic domain "SET" with the N-termini of histone H3. However, these interactions are restricted in canonical nucleosomes due to the limited accessibility of H3 termini. Here we investigated whether nucleosome remodeling with the yeast Isw2 affects nucleosome affinity to the SET domain of ALL-1 HKMT.

Interaction of SET domains with histones and nucleic acid structures in active chromatin.

Changes in the normal program of gene expression are the basis for a number of human diseases. Epigenetic control of gene expression is programmed by chromatin modifications-the inheritable "histone code"-the major component of which is histone methylation. This chromatin methylation code of gene activity is created upon cell differentiation and is further controlled by the "SET" (methyltransferase) domain proteins which maintain this histone methylation pattern and preserve it through rounds of cell division.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae Swi/Snf complex can catalyze formation of dimeric nucleosome structures in vitro.

The Swi/Snf chromatin-remodeling complexes, human BAF/PBAF and yeast RSC, can catalyze formation of stably altered dimeric forms of nucleosomes. However, the ability to create remodeled dimers has not yet been reported for the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Swi/Snf complex. Despite its similarity with the other Swi/Snf proteins, the yeast Swi/Snf complex features certain structural and functional differences.

Histone acetylation facilitates association of nucleosomes with SET domain of ALL-1 methyltransferase in vitro.

The inheritable methylation pattern of gene activity, created upon cell differentiation, is further maintained by the "SET" (methyltransferase)-domain proteins. However, it is still not clear how SET-proteins can decide on the required gene activity state and the way their chromatin association is maintained. Here we have found that high levels of histone acetylation--the hallmarks of active chromosome regions in vivo--can increase the affinity of reconstituted nucleosomes to the SET domain of ALL-1 histone methyltransferase in a defined system in vitro.

SET domains of histone methyltransferases recognize ISWI-remodeled nucleosomal species.

The trithorax (trxG) and Polycomb (PcG) group proteins recognize and propagate inheritable patterns of gene expression through a poorly understood epigenetic mechanism. A distinguishing feature of these proteins is the presence of a 130-amino-acid methyltransferase domain (SET), which catalyzes the methylation of histones. It is still not clear how SET proteins distinguish gene expression states, how they are targeted, or what regulates their substrate specificity.

Evidence for the nucleosome-disruption process regulated by phosphorylation of 120 kDa protein complex in Drosophila embryo cell-free system.

Using cell-free system derived from Drosophila embryos, we found evidence for a regulated nucleosome disruption process, which depends on the phosphorylation status of 120 kDa protein (complex). Dephosphorylation enables the remodeling activity to destabilize nucleosomes, which assume a more accessible structure, possessing increased DNase I sensitivity and high conformational flexibility of DNA; remodeling was more efficient on highly acetylated chromatin templates. This phosphorylation-regulated nucleosome destabilization, acting synergistically with histone acetylation, is discussed as a possible mechanism to provide regulated disrupt of histone-DNA interaction.

A motif within SET-domain proteins binds single-stranded nucleic acids and transcribed and supercoiled DNAs and can interfere with assembly of nucleosomes.

The evolutionary conserved SET domain is present in many eukaryotic chromatin-associated proteins, including some members of the trithorax (TrxG) group and the polycomb (PcG) group of epigenetic transcriptional regulators and modifiers of position effect variegation. All SET domains examined exhibited histone lysine methyltransferase activity, implicating these proteins in the generation of epigenetic marks. However, the mode of the initial recruitment of SET proteins to target genes and the way that their association with the genes is maintained after replication are not known.