Constitutive activation of the PI3K-Akt-mTORC1 pathway sustains the m.3243 A > G mtDNA mutation.

Mutations of the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) cause a range of profoundly debilitating clinical conditions for which treatment options are very limited. Most mtDNA diseases show heteroplasmy - tissues express both wild-type and mutant mtDNA. While the level of heteroplasmy broadly correlates with disease severity, the relationships between specific mtDNA mutations, heteroplasmy, disease phenotype and severity are poorly understood.

Trem2 promotes anti-inflammatory responses in microglia and is suppressed under pro-inflammatory conditions.

Genome-wide association studies have reported that, amongst other microglial genes, variants in TREM2 can profoundly increase the incidence of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have investigated the role of TREM2 in primary microglial cultures from wild type mice by using siRNA to decrease Trem2 expression, and in parallel from knock-in mice heterozygous or homozygous for the Trem2 R47H AD risk variant. The prevailing phenotype of Trem2 R47H knock-in mice was decreased expression levels of Trem2 in microglia, which resulted in decreased density of microglia in the hippocampus.

Molecular design of hypothalamus development.

A wealth of specialized neuroendocrine command systems intercalated within the hypothalamus control the most fundamental physiological needs in vertebrates. Nevertheless, we lack a developmental blueprint that integrates the molecular determinants of neuronal and glial diversity along temporal and spatial scales of hypothalamus development. Here we combine single-cell RNA sequencing of 51,199 mouse cells of ectodermal origin, gene regulatory network (GRN) screens in conjunction with genome-wide association study-based disease phenotyping, and genetic lineage reconstruction to show that nine glial and thirty-three neuronal subtypes are generated by mid-gestation under the control of distinct GRNs.

Cadherin 8 regulates proliferation of cortical interneuron progenitors.

Cortical interneurons are born in the ventral forebrain and migrate tangentially in two streams at the levels of the intermediate zone (IZ) and the pre-plate/marginal zone to the developing cortex where they switch to radial migration before settling in their final positions in the cortical plate. In a previous attempt to identify the molecules that regulate stream specification, we performed transcriptomic analysis of GFP-labelled interneurons taken from the two migratory streams during corticogenesis. A number of cadherins were found to be expressed differentially, with Cadherin-8 (Cdh8) selectively present in the IZ stream.

Vascular-Derived Vegfa Promotes Cortical Interneuron Migration and Proximity to the Vasculature in the Developing Forebrain.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegfa) is essential for promoting the vascularization of the embryonic murine forebrain. In addition, it directly influences neural development, although its role in the forming forebrain is less well elucidated. It was recently suggested that Vegfa may influence the development of GABAergic interneurons, inhibitory cells with crucial signaling roles in cortical neuronal circuits.

Protective role of Cadherin 13 in interneuron development.

Cortical interneurons are generated in the ganglionic eminences and migrate through the ventral and dorsal telencephalon before finding their final positions within the cortical plate. During early stages of migration, these cells are present in two well-defined streams within the developing cortex. In an attempt to identify candidate genes which may play a role in interneuron stream specification, we previously carried out a microarray analysis which identified a number of cadherin receptors that were differentially expressed in these streams, including Cadherin-13 (Cdh13).

Semaphorin3A-neuropilin1 signalling is involved in the generation of cortical interneurons.

Cortical interneurons are generated predominantly in the medial ganglionic eminence of the ventral telencephalon and migrate to the cortex during embryonic development. These cells express neuropilin (Nrp1 and Nrp2) receptors which mediate their response to the chemorepulsive class 3 semaphorin (Sema) ligands. We show here that semaphorins Sema3A and Sema3F are expressed in layers adjacent to cortical interneuron migratory streams as well as in the striatum, suggesting they may have a role in guiding these cells throughout their journey.

Altered proliferative ability of neuronal progenitors in PlexinA1 mutant mice.

Cortical interneurons are generated predominantly in the medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) and migrate through the ventral and dorsal telencephalon before taking their final positions within the developing cortical plate. Previously we demonstrated that interneurons from Robo1 knockout (Robo1(-/-)) mice contain reduced levels of neuropilin 1 (Nrp1) and PlexinA1 receptors, rendering them less responsive to the chemorepulsive actions of semaphorin ligands expressed in the striatum and affecting their course of migration (Hernandez-Miranda et al. [2011] J.

Disrupted Slit-Robo signalling results in membranous ventricular septum defects and bicuspid aortic valves.

Aims: The mesenchymal cushions lining the early embryonic heart undergo complex remodelling to form the membranous ventricular septum as well as the atrioventricular and semilunar valves in later life. Disruption of this process underlies the most common congenital heart defects. Here, we identified a novel role for Slit-Robo signalling in the development of the murine membranous ventricular septum and cardiac valves.

Endocannabinoids modulate cortical development by configuring Slit2/Robo1 signalling.

Local environmental cues are indispensable for axonal growth and guidance during brain circuit formation. Here, we combine genetic and pharmacological tools, as well as systems neuroanatomy in human fetuses and mouse models, to study the role of endocannabinoid and Slit/Robo signalling in axonal growth. We show that excess 2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endocannabinoid affecting directional axonal growth, triggers corpus callosum enlargement due to the errant CB1 cannabinoid receptor-containing corticofugal axon spreading.

Robo1 modulates proliferation and neurogenesis in the developing neocortex.

The elaborate cytoarchitecture of the mammalian neocortex requires the timely production of its constituent pyramidal neurons and interneurons and their disposition in appropriate layers. Numerous chemotropic factors present in the forebrain throughout cortical development play important roles in the orchestration of these events. The Roundabout (Robo) family of receptors and their ligands, the Slit proteins, are expressed in the developing forebrain, and are known to play important roles in the generation and migration of cortical interneurons.

Limk2 mediates semaphorin signalling in cortical interneurons migrating through the subpallium.

En route to the neocortex, interneurons migrate around and avoid the developing striatum. This is due to the chemorepulsive cues of class 3 semaphorins (Sema3A and Sema3F) acting through neuropilin and plexin co-receptors expressed in interneurons. In a recent genetic screen aimed at identifying novel components that may play a role in interneuron migration, we identified LIM-kinase 2 (Limk2), a kinase previously shown to be involved in cell movement and in Sema7A-PlexinC1 signalling.

Slit-roundabout signaling regulates the development of the cardiac systemic venous return and pericardium.

Rationale: The Slit-Roundabout (Robo) signaling pathway has pleiotropic functions during Drosophila heart development. However, its role in mammalian heart development is largely unknown.

Objective: To analyze the role of Slit-Robo signaling in the formation of the pericardium and the systemic venous return in the murine heart.

Slit2 and Robo3 modulate the migration of GnRH-secreting neurons.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons are born in the nasal placode and migrate along olfactory and vomeronasal axons to reach the forebrain and settle in the hypothalamus, where they control reproduction. The molecular cues that guide their migration have not been fully identified, but are thought to control either cell movement directly or the patterning of their axonal substrates. Using genetically altered mouse models we show that the migration of GnRH neurons is directly modulated by Slit2 and Robo3, members of the axon guidance Slit ligand and Robo receptor families.

Identification and characterisation of STMN4 and ROBO2 gene involvement in neuroblastoma cell differentiation.

To better understand neuroblastoma differentiation, we used microarray analysis to identify common gene expression changes from three differentiation models. This revealed STMN4 and ROBO2 to be consistently up-regulated in differentiated neuroblastoma cells induced by chromosome 1 transfer, MYCN knockdown, and 9-cis retinoic acid (9cRA). Furthermore, stable expression of transfected STMN4 or ROBO2 induced differentiation in IMR-32 cells.

Robo1 regulates the migration and laminar distribution of upper-layer pyramidal neurons of the cerebral cortex.

Laminar organization is a key feature of the mammalian cerebral cortex, but the mechanisms by which final positioning and "inside-out" distribution of neurons are determined remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that Robo1, a member of the family of Roundabout receptors, regulates the correct positioning of layers II/III pyramidal neurons in the neocortex. Specifically, we used RNA interference in mice to suppress the expression of Robo1 in a subset of layers II/III neurons, and observed the positions of these cells at distinct developmental stages.

Control of human hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell migration by the extracellular matrix protein Slit3.

Patients whose hematopoietic system is compromised by chemo- and/or radiotherapy require transplantation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) to restore hematopoiesis. Successful homing of transplanted HSPCs to the bone marrow (BM) largely depends on their migratory potential, which is critically regulated by the chemokine CXCL12. In this study, we have investigated the expression and function of Slit proteins and their corresponding Roundabout (Robo) receptors in human HSPC migration.

Differential gene expression in migratory streams of cortical interneurons.

Cortical interneurons originate in the ganglionic eminences of the subpallium and migrate into the cortex in well-defined tangential streams. At the start of corticogenesis, two streams of migrating neurons are evident: a superficial one at the level of the preplate (PPL), and a deeper one at the level of the intermediate zone (IZ). Currently, little is known about the signalling mechanisms that regulate interneuron migration, and almost nothing is known about the molecules that may be involved in their choice of migratory stream.

Robo1 regulates semaphorin signaling to guide the migration of cortical interneurons through the ventral forebrain.

Cortical interneurons, generated predominantly in the medial ganglionic eminence, migrate around and avoid the developing striatum in the subpallium en route to the cortex. This is attributable to the chemorepulsive cues of class 3 semaphorins expressed in the striatal mantle and acting through neuropilin (Nrp1 and Nrp2) receptors expressed in these cells. Cortical interneurons also express Robo receptors, and we show here that in mice lacking Robo1, but not Robo2, these cells migrate aberrantly through the striatum.

Tbx1 controls cardiac neural crest cell migration during arch artery development by regulating Gbx2 expression in the pharyngeal ectoderm.

Elucidating the gene regulatory networks that govern pharyngeal arch artery (PAA) development is an important goal, as such knowledge can help to identify new genes involved in cardiovascular disease. The transcription factor Tbx1 plays a vital role in PAA development and is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease associated with DiGeorge syndrome. In this report, we used various genetic approaches to reveal part of a signalling network by which Tbx1 controls PAA development in mice.

The role of Robo3 in the development of cortical interneurons.

A number of studies in recent years have shown that members of the Roundabout (Robo) receptor family, Robo1 and Robo2, play significant roles in the formation of axonal tracks in the developing forebrain and in the migration and morphological differentiation of cortical interneurons. Here, we investigated the expression and function of Robo3 in the developing cortex. We found that this receptor is strongly expressed in the preplate layer and cortical hem of the early cortex where it colocalizes with markers of Cajal-Retzius cells and interneurons.

Slit-Robo interactions during cortical development.

Interneurons are an integral part of cortical neuronal circuits. During the past decade, numerous studies have shown that these cells, unlike their pyramidal counterparts that are derived from the neuroepithelium along the lumen of the lateral ventricles, are generated in the ganglionic eminences in the subpallium. They use tangential migratory paths to reach the cortex, guided by intrinsic and extrinsic cues.