Co-inections of domestic and wild birds with avian influenza and Newcastle disease viruses: implications for control and genetic mutations.

Co-infections of birds' upper respiratory tract by avian pathogens are common and cause increasing economic losses. This study determines co-infection status of avian influenza (AI) and Newcastle disease (ND) in birds in two Nigerian states with different highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) records and where modified stamping out policy contained the virus for seven years after which the virus resurged with higher infectivity in 2015. A cross-sectional study sampling 910 apparently healthy domestic and 90 wild birds from wild habitats, commercial poultry farms, households and live bird markets (LBMs) was conducted.