Olive oil wastewater: a comprehensive review on examination of toxicity, valorization strategies, composition, and modern management approaches.

Olive mill wastewater (OMWW), a by-product of olive oil production, poses severe environmental challenges due to its toxicity, primarily caused by its high organic load and phenolic compounds, along with organic acids, lipids, and heavy metals. These components contribute to its elevated chemical and biological oxygen demand, making OMWW a persistent pollutant that necessitates urgent and effective treatment strategies. The ecological risks, including water contamination, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss, underscore the need for sustainable management approaches.