Indirectly acquired fear memories have distinct, sex-specific molecular signatures from directly acquired fear memories.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder that affects women more than men. About 30% of patients suffering from PTSD develop the disorder by witnessing a traumatic event happen to someone else. However, as the focus has remained on those directly experiencing the traumatic event, whether indirectly acquired fear memories that underlie PTSD have the same molecular signature as those that are directly acquired remains unknown.

Decreases in K63 Polyubiquitination in the Hippocampus Promote the Formation of Contextual Fear Memories in Both Males and Females.

Over 90% of protein degradation in eukaryotic cells occurs through the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). In this system, the ubiquitin protein can bind to a substrate on its own or it can form a chain with multiple ubiquitin molecules in a process called polyubiquitination. There are 8 different sites on ubiquitin at which polyubiquitin chains can be formed, the second most abundant of which, lysine-63 (K63), is independent of the degradation process, though this mark has rarely been studied in the brain or during learning-dependent synaptic plasticity.

An Updated Evaluation of the Management of Nerve Gaps: Autografts, Allografts, and Nerve Transfers.

Within the past decade, there have been multiple innovations in the field of nerve surgery. In this review, we highlight critical changes and innovations that have helped advance the field and present opportunities for further study. This includes the modification and clarification of the classification schema for nerve injuries which informs prognosis and treatment, and a refined understanding and application of electrodiagnostic studies to guide patient selection.