Immunoproteomics: A Review of Techniques, Applications, and Advancements.

Immunoproteomics is the branch of proteomics with an emphasis on the study of functional peptides and proteins related to the immune system. Combining proteomics techniques with immunological research aims to uncover the complex interactions of proteins involved in immune responses. This review discusses the methods, applications, and recent advancements in immunoproteomics, highlighting its critical role in understanding immune responses, discovering biomarkers, and developing vaccines and therapeutics.

Immunoproteomics: Approach to Diagnostic and Vaccine Development.

The study of large protein sets (proteomics) involved in the immunological reaction is known as immunoproteomics. The methodology of immunoproteomics plays a major role in identifying possible vaccine candidates that could protect against pathogenic infection. The study of immunogenic proteins that are expressed during the outset of infection is the focus of the crosstalk between proteomics and immune protection antigens utilizing serum.

Copper Nanoparticles: Characterization, Synthesis, and Biological Activity - A Review.

Copper and copper-based nanoparticles, derived from the abundant and cost-effective copper metal, have garnered significant attention due to their unique properties and potential for various applications. Copper is a biogenic metal that is found in all kingdoms of life and has a variety of essential biological activities. Among the earliest metals that humanity has harvested and exploited, copper has played a crucial role in maintaining and advancing civilization since the beginning of time.

Prediction of Brugia malayi antigenic peptides: candidates for synthetic vaccine design against lymphatic filariasis.

Brugia malayi is a threadlike nematode cause's swelling of lymphatic organs, condition well known as lymphatic filariasis; till date no invention made to effectively address lymphatic filariasis. In this analysis we a have predicted suitable antigenic peptides from Brugia malayi antigen protein for peptide vaccine design against lymphatic filariasis based on cross protection phenomenon as, an ample immune response can be generated with a single protein subunit. We found MHC class II binding peptides of Brugia malayi antigen protein are important determinant against the diseased condition.

Cellunomics: the interaction analysis of cells.

Cellunomics envisions the new branch of cell, which integrates genomics and proteomics with a new knowledge base built from temporal and spatial data on the chemical and molecular interrelationships of cellular components, i.e., cellome.

Phylogenomics: evolution and genomics intersection.

Phylogenomics is the analysis of genomes of a group of closely related species. Almost all functional prediction methods rely on the identification, characterisation and quantification of sequence similarity between the gene of interest and genes for which functional information is available. This is the new evolved branch that is developed from the ongoing genome sequencing projects that have led to a phylogenetic approach based on genome-scale data.

microRNA: human disease and development.

microRNAs or miRNAs are an abundant class of highly conversed, small non-coding RNAs that present an entirely new theme of post-transcriptional gene regulation. miRNAs play a key role in diverse biological systems, such as virology, embryogenesis, differentiation, inflammation and cancer research. Research showed the importance of these non-coding small RNAs on immune system development and response.

Cytomics.

Cytomics is the branch of omics that takes into account the various bioinformatic techniques for understanding the functions and molecular architecture of the cytome. Cytomics, the multi-molecular cytometric analysis of the cellular heterogeneity of cytomes, access a maximum of information on the apparent molecular cell phenotype as it results from cell genotype and exposure. This has been done using various cytometrical procedures including microscopic techniques allowing the various components of a cell to be visualized as they interact in vivo.

Physiomics.

Physiomics is that branch of omics that uses large scale databases and experimental databases along with computer algorithms to study the physiological phenotypes of genes, proteins and their relationships. It deals with studying the physiome, the total integration of genome, proteome and metabolome, from cells to organisms. It is a very useful branch that has been actively used in studying drug development, various interactions and biosensor as well as biochip development.

Kinomics.

Kinomics is derived from the word kinome that is the kinase part of the proteome. Kinomics is a merger between genomics and proteomics. Defining the kinase complement of the human genome, the kinome, has provided an excellent starting point for understanding the scale of the problem.

Toxicogenomics.

Toxicogenomics is defined as an integration of genomics (transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) and toxicology. It is a scientific field that studies how the genome is involved in responses to environmental stressors and toxicants. It combines studies of mRNA expression, cell and tissue-wide protein expression and metabonomics to understand the role of gene-environment interactions in disease.

Transcriptomics.

Transcriptomics, a genome-wide measurement of mRNA expression levels based on DNA microarray technology is one of the prominent fields of study. This is the term given to the set of all transcripts or messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules produced in cells. It can also be applied to the specific subset of transcripts present in a particular cell or the total set of transcripts in a given organism.

RNAi--a tool for target finding in new drug development.

RNAi (RNA interference) refers to the introduction of homologous double stranded RNA (dsRNA) to specifically target a gene's product, resulting in null or hypomorphic phenotypes. Long double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs; typically >200 nt) can be used to silence the expression of target genes in a variety of organisms and cell types (e.g.

Blood stage parasites: sufficient to induce protective immunity.

Merozoites are the surface antigens and variant antigens expressed on the surface of malaria-infected erythrocytes (including PfEMP1) are both targets of protective antibody responses. The mechanism of the modified immune response was observed after subpatent infections. Subpatently infected mice had increased antigen-specific T-cell responses; they were not better protected than patently infected mice.

Epigenomics.

'Epigenomics' can be termed as the study of the effects of chromatin structure, including the higher order of chromatin folding and attachment to the nuclear matrix, packaging of DNA around nucleosomes, covalent modifications of histone tails and DNA methylation. This has evolved to include any process that alters gene activity without changing the DNA sequence, and leads to modifications that can be transmitted to daughter cells. It also leads to a better knowledge of the changes in the regulation of genes and genomes that occur in major psychosis.

Microarray: an approach for current drug targets.

Microarrays are a powerful tool has multiple applications both in clinical and cellular and molecular biology arenas. Early assessment of the probable biological importance of drug targets, pharmacogenomics, toxicogenomics and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). A list of new drug candidates along with proposed targets for intervention is described.

Proteomics: technologies for protein analysis.

Proteomics technologies have produced an abundance of drug targets, which is creating a bottleneck in drug development process. There is an increasing need for better target validation for new drug development and proteomic technologies are contributing to it. Identifying a potential protein drug target within a cell is a major challenge in modern drug discovery; techniques for screening the proteome are, therefore, an important tool.

Pharmacogenomics.

Pharmacogenetics is the intersection of the fields of pharmacology and genetics. Simply stated, pharmacogenetics is the study of how genetic variations affect the ways in which people respond to drugs. These variations can manifest themselves as differences in the drug targets or as differences in the enzymes that metabolize drugs.

Oncogenomics.

The rapid developments in the field of genomics and proteomics are expected to lead to a further increase in the potential for early diagnosis, the fine-tuning of prognostic features of specific tumors and the detection of cancer predisposition. Oncogenomics has identified new drug targets for genotype-specific treatments and provided strategies to validate these targets and to develop drugs. With the potential need to stratify patients by genotype, clinical testing of targeted drugs has become more complicated while expectations of patients, investors, and funding agencies have become accelerated.

Species scaling and extrapolation.

The various scaling methodologies and molecular features analysis were applied to new dataset to predict human pharmacokinetics studies. Whereas the predictive accuracies demonstrated across all of the various methodologies were lower for this higher clearance compound dataset, scaling from species continued to be an accurate methodology, and human volume of distribution was similarly well predicted regardless of scaling methodology. Also, extrapolation is the method for constructing new data points given a set of discrete data points.

Clonetics.

Work on human immortalized cell lines is not considered research on human subjects, but does involve biohazards. It has also been estimated that about 80% of human cell lines are the kind of cells that they are expected. Cells that are cultured directly from a subject are referred to as primary cells.

Prediction of MHC binding peptides and epitopes from alfalfa mosaic virus.

Peptide fragments from alfalfa mosaic virus involved multiple antigenic components directing and empowering the immune system to protect the host from infection. MHC molecules are cell surface proteins, which take active part in host immune reactions and involvement of MHC class-I & II in response to almost all antigens. Coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus contains 221 aa residues.

Prediction of antigenic epitopes of neurotoxin Bmbktx1 from Mesobuthus martensii.

Gene therapy or recombinant DNA vaccines targeting multiple antigenic components to direct empower the immune system. Antigenic epitopes on neurotoxin Mesobuthus martensii (Buthus martensii) are important determinant of protection against cardiovascular disorder. Small segments 4-YSSDCRVKCVAM-15, 18-SSGKCINSKC-27 of neuro-toxin protein called the antigenic epitopes is sufficient for eliciting the desired immune response.