The Imbalance of Homocysteine, Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid in Parkinson Plus Syndromes: A Review beyond Parkinson Disease.

While there is a link between homocysteine (Hcy), B12 and folic acid and neurodegeneration, especially in disorders like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, its role in Parkinson plus syndromes (PPS) has only been partially investigated. It appears that elevated Hcy, along with an imbalance of its essential vitamin cofactors, are both implicated in the development and progression of parkinsonian syndromes, which represent different disease pathologies, namely alpha-synucleinopathies and tauopathies. Attributing a potential pathogenetic role in hyperhomocysteinemia would be crucial in terms of improving the diagnostic and prognostic accuracy of these syndromes and also for providing a new target for possible therapeutic intervention.

Signaling through the S1P-S1PR Axis in the Gut, the Immune and the Central Nervous System in Multiple Sclerosis: Implication for Pathogenesis and Treatment.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a signaling molecule with complex biological functions that are exerted through the activation of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors 1-5 (S1PR1-5). S1PR expression is necessary for cell proliferation, angiogenesis, neurogenesis and, importantly, for the egress of lymphocytes from secondary lymphoid organs. Since the inflammatory process is a key element of immune-mediated diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS), S1PR modulators are currently used to ameliorate systemic immune responses.