Characterization of Platelet Receptors and Their Involvement in Immune Activation of These Cells.

The article characterises platelets, pointing out the role and contribution of their numerous receptors determining their specific and broad immune activity. Three types of platelet receptors are described, that is, extracellular and intracellular receptors-TLR (toll-like receptors), NLR (NOD-like receptor), and RLR (RIG-I-like receptor); extracellular receptors-selectins and integrins; and their other extracellular receptors-CLR (C-type lectin receptor), CD (cluster of differentiation), TNF (tumour necrosis factor), among others. Outlining the contribution of these numerous platelet receptors to the intravascular immunity, it has been shown that they are formed by their fusion with pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and lifestyle-associated molecular patterns (LAMPs).

Preliminary proteomic analysis of mouse lung tissue treated with cyclophosphamide and Venetin-1.

Cyclophosphamide (CPAm) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent that exhibits potent anti-cancer properties but is often associated with debilitating side effects. Despite its efficacy, the management of CPAm-induced toxicities remains a significant clinical challenge. There has been growing interest in exploring complementary and alternative therapies to mitigate these adverse effects in recent years, and this may be a chance for the earthworm-derived preparation, Venetin-1.

Virophages, Satellite Viruses, Virophage Replication and Its Effects and Virophage Defence Mechanisms for Giant Virus Hosts and Giant Virus Defence Systems against Virophages.

In this paper, the characteristics of 40 so far described virophages-parasites of giant viruses-are given, and the similarities and differences between virophages and satellite viruses, which also, like virophages, require helper viruses for replication, are described. The replication of virophages taking place at a specific site-the viral particle factory of giant viruses-and its consequences are presented, and the defence mechanisms of virophages for giant virus hosts, as a protective action for giant virus hosts-protozoa and algae-are approximated. The defence systems of giant viruses against virophages were also presented, which are similar to the CRISPR/Cas defence system found in bacteria and in Archea.

Characterisation of GI-RHDVs (Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Viruses) in Terms of Their Pathogenicity and Immunogenicity.

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease viruses (RHDV) belong to the family genus , genogroup GI, comprising four genotypes GI.1-GI.4, of which the genotypes GI.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) in teleosts against data on ILCs in humans.

It is assumed that cells corresponding to innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) in humans, in addition to lymphoid tissue inducer cells (LTi), are also found in teleosts. In this systematic group of organisms, however, they are a poorly understood cell population. In contrast to the data on ILCs in humans, which also remain incomplete despite advanced research, in teleosts, these cells require much more attention.

Virophages-Known and Unknown Facts.

The paper presents virophages, which, like their host, giant viruses, are "new" infectious agents whose role in nature, including mammalian health, is important. Virophages, along with their protozoan and algal hosts, are found in fresh inland waters and oceanic and marine waters, including thermal waters and deep-sea vents, as well as in soil, plants, and in humans and animals (ruminants). Representing "superparasitism", almost all of the 39 described virophages (except Zamilon) interact negatively with giant viruses by affecting their replication and morphogenesis and their "adaptive immunity".

Immunity of the intestinal mucosa in teleost fish.

The paper presents the problem of intestinal mucosa immunity in teleost fish. The immunity of the intestinal mucosa in teleost fish depends on the elements and mechanisms with different organizational/structural and functional properties than in mammals. The organization of the elements of intestinal mucosal immunitya in these animals is associated with the presence of immune cells that fulfil the functions assigned to the induction and effector sites of mucosal immunity in mammals; they are located at various histological sites of the mucosa - in the lamina propria (LP) and in the surface epithelium.

Macrophage efferocytosis in atherosclerosis.

This paper presents the role of macrophage efferocytosis, the process of elimination of apoptotic bodies-elements formed during vascular atherosclerosis. The mechanisms of macrophage efferocytosis are presented, introducing the specific signals of this process, that is, 'find me', 'eat me' and 'don't eat me'. The role of the process of efferocytosis in the formation of vascular atherosclerosis is also presented, including the factors and mechanisms that determine it, as well as the factors that determine the maintenance of homeostasis in the vessels, including the formation of vascular atherosclerosis.

Haematopoiesis in Zebrafish (Danio Rerio).

Haematopoiesis in fish and mammals is a complex process, and many aspects regarding its model and the differentiation of haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) still remain enigmatic despite advanced studies. The effects of microenvironmental factors or HSCs niche and signalling pathways on haematopoiesis are also unclear. This review presents as a model organism for studies on haematopoiesis in vertebrates and discusses the development of this process during the embryonic period and in adult fish.

What Function Do Platelets Play in Inflammation and Bacterial and Viral Infections?

The article presents the function of platelets in inflammation as well as in bacterial and viral infections, which are the result of their reaction with the endovascular environment, including cells of damaged vascular endothelium and cells of the immune system. This role of platelets is conditioned by biologically active substances present in their granules and in their specific structures - EV (extracellular vesicles).

Reactivity of selected markers of innate and adaptive immunity in rabbits experimentally infected with antigenic variants of RHD (Lagovirus europaeus/GI.1a).

Lagovirus europaeus/GI.1 causes a fatal viral condition in rabbits characterized by acute viral hepatitis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Due to rapid viral and environmental changes variants (Lagovirus europaeus/GI.

Immunological memory in teleost fish.

Immunological memory can be regarded as the key aspect of adaptive immunity, i.e. a specific response to first contact with an antigen, which in mammals is determined by the properties of T, B and NK cells.

Type I interferons in ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii).

Interferons (IFNs) are proteins of vital importance in the body's immune response. They are formed in different types of cells and have been found in fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. Two types of IFN have been found in ray-finned fish (Superclass: Osteichthyes, Class: Actinopterygii) so far, i.

Immune Functions of Erythrocytes in Osteichthyes.

Red blood cells (RBCs)-erythrocytes-of Osteichthyes are primarily known for their involvement in the process of gas exchange and respiration. Currently, physiological properties of RCBs in fish should also include their ability to participate in defense processes as part of the innate and adaptive immune mechanisms. In response to viruses, bacteria, and fungi or recombinant nanoparticles, they can modulate expression of genes responsible for immune reactions, influence activity of leukocytes, and produce cytokines, antimicrobial peptides, and paracrine intercellular signaling molecules.

Major Histocompatibility Complex in Osteichthyes.

Based on analysis of available genome sequences, five gene lineages of MHC class I molecules (MHC I-U, -Z, -S, -L and -P) and one gene lineage of MHC class II molecules (MHC II-D) have been identified in Osteichthyes. In the latter lineage, three MHC II molecule sublineages have been identified (MHC II-A, -B and -E). As regards MHC class I molecules in Osteichthyes, it is important to take note of the fact that the lineages U and Z in MHC I genes have been identified in almost all fish species examined so far.

B and T lymphocytes in rabbits change according to the sex and throughout the year.

The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is a good model in biomedicine used in research on several human diseases. The reference values of B and T cells and their subpopu- lations are very important to understand how the adaptive immune system is responding to infectious agents. The aim of this study was to determine values of B and T cells and their subpopulations in Polish mixed-breed rabbits, considering seasons of the year and sex.

The role of innate lymphoid cells in selected disease states - cancer formation, metabolic disorder and inflammation.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a recently described group of immune cells that can regulate homeostasis and protect mammalian organisms, including humans, from infections and diseases. Considering this, ILC research is still ongoing to better understand the biology of these cells and their roles in the human body. ILCs are a multifunctional group of immune cells, making it important for the medical community to be familiar with the latest research about the ILC families and their functions in selected disease states, such as cancer formation, metabolic disorders and inflammation.

Melanomacrophages and melanomacrophage centres in .

Melanomacrophages (MMs) are phagocytizing cells with high amounts of pigments including melanin which can be found in a number of cold-blooded species. In Osteichthyes, these cells cluster to form so-called melanomacrophage centres (MMCs), which are predominantly present in the stroma of hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues, that is, in the kidney and spleen. The functionality of MMs and MMCs results from their involvement and role in the defence reactions, related to both the innate and the adaptive immune mechanisms, and in processes unrelated to defence functions as well.

"In sickness and in health" - how neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) works in infections, selected diseases and pregnancy.

The discovery of the NET network (neutrophil extracellular trap) has revolutionized the perception of defense mechanisms used by neutrophils in infections and non-infectious states, as this mechanism proves the complexity of the ways in which neutrophils can act in the organism. The paper describes the NET network and its participation in bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections, both in a positive and a negative aspect. In addition, attention was paid to the participation of NETs in the course of autoimmune diseases, cancer, as well as its impact on pregnancy and fertility in mammals.

Protozoal giant viruses: agents potentially infectious to humans and animals.

The discovery of giant viruses has revolutionised the knowledge on viruses and transformed the idea of three domains of life. Here, we discuss the known protozoal giant viruses and their potential to infect also humans and animals.

Characterisation of Thrombocytes in Osteichthyes.

Thrombocytes in vertebrates other than mammals, inter alia in fish, are analogues of platelets in mammals. In Osteichthyes, these cells take part in haemostatic processes, including aggregation and release reactions in cases of blood vessel damage, and in the immune response development as well. This paper discusses the development of thrombocytes in Osteichthyes, taking into account the need to make changes to the concept of grouping progenitor cells as suggested in the literature.

Natural antibodies - facts known and unknown.

In contrast to adaptive antibodies, natural antibodies are present in a non-immunised organism from birth, and they do not include anti-Gal antibodies and/or anti-Gal natural antibodies, which are developed as a result of the effect of the -Gal epitope and physiological flora. Natural antibodies are the first line of the organism's defence before the formation of the immunity created via the stimulation of elements that determine specific and non-specific immunity. This is especially important in the case of infants.

Specific humoral immunity in .

The fish immune system is extremely complex and has considerable adaptive potential. In Osteichthyes, the system is formed by lymphopoietic organs which are important for the differentiation and maturation of the immune system cells. These organs include the anterior kidney (phronephros), the thymus, the spleen, the posterior kidney (mesonephros), and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues (MALT).