ATG9 vesicles comprise the seed membrane of mammalian autophagosomes.

As the autophagosome forms, its membrane surface area expands rapidly, while its volume is kept low. Protein-mediated transfer of lipids from another organelle to the autophagosome likely drives this expansion, but as these lipids are only introduced into the cytoplasmic-facing leaflet of the organelle, full membrane growth also requires lipid scramblase activity. ATG9 harbors scramblase activity and is essential to autophagosome formation; however, whether ATG9 is integrated into mammalian autophagosomes remains unclear.

Intra-Strain Genetic Variation of Platyfish () Strains Determines Tumorigenic Trajectory.

interspecies hybrids represent a valuable model system to study heritable tumorigenesis, and the only model system that exhibits both spontaneous and inducible tumors. Types of tumorigenesis depend on the specific pedigree of the parental species, , utilized to produce interspecies hybrids. Although the ancestors of the two currently used parental lines, Jp163 A and Jp163 B, were originally siblings produced by the same mother, backcross interspecies hybrid progeny between and Jp163 A develop spontaneous melanoma initiating at the dorsal fin due to segregation of an oncogene and a regulator encoded by the genome, while the backcross hybrid progeny with or and Jp163 B exhibit melanoma on the flanks of their bodies, especially after treatment with ultraviolet light.

The insufficiency of ATG4A in macroautophagy.

During autophagy, LC3 and GABARAP proteins become covalently attached to phosphatidylethanolamine on the growing autophagosome. This attachment is also reversible. Deconjugation (or delipidation) involves the proteolytic cleavage of an isopeptide bond between LC3 or GABARAP and the phosphatidylethanolamine headgroup.