Structural basis for kinase inhibition in the tripartite HipBST toxin-antitoxin system.

Many bacteria encode multiple toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems targeting separate, but closely related, cellular functions. The toxin of the system, HipA, is a kinase that inhibits translation via phosphorylation of glutamyl-tRNA synthetase. Enteropathogenic O127:H6 encodes the -like, tripartite TA system; , in which the HipT toxin specifically targets the tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase, TrpS.

Adipokinetic hormones and their G protein-coupled receptors emerged in Lophotrochozoa.

Most multicellular animals belong to two evolutionary lineages, the Proto- and Deuterostomia, which diverged 640-760 million years (MYR) ago. Neuropeptide signaling is abundant in animals belonging to both lineages, but it is often unclear whether there exist evolutionary relationships between the neuropeptide systems used by proto- or deuterostomes. An exception, however, are members of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor superfamily, which occur in both evolutionary lineages, where GnRHs are the ligands in Deuterostomia and GnRH-like peptides, adipokinetic hormone (AKH), corazonin, and AKH/corazonin-related peptide (ACP) are the ligands in Protostomia.