Structural basis of elongation factor 2 switching.

Archaebacterial and eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (EF-2) and bacterial elongation factor G (EF-G) are five domain GTPases that catalyze the ribosomal translocation of tRNA and mRNA. In the classical mechanism of activation, GTPases are switched on through GDP/GTP exchange, which is accompanied by the ordering of two flexible segments called switch I and II. However, crystal structures of EF-2 and EF-G have thus far not revealed the conformations required by the classical mechanism.

Structural Basis of the Substrate Selectivity of Viperin.

Viperin is a radical -adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzyme that inhibits viral replication by converting cytidine triphosphate (CTP) into 3'-deoxy-3',4'-didehydro-CTP and by additional undefined mechanisms operating through its N- and C-terminal domains. Here, we describe crystal structures of viperin bound to a SAM analogue and CTP or uridine triphosphate (UTP) and report kinetic parameters for viperin-catalyzed reactions with CTP or UTP as substrates. Viperin orients the C4' hydrogen atom of CTP and UTP similarly for abstraction by a 5'-deoxyadenosyl radical, but the uracil moiety introduces unfavorable interactions that prevent tight binding of UTP.

The use of Trichomonas vaginalis purine nucleoside phosphorylase to activate fludarabine in the treatment of solid tumors.

Treatment with fludarabine phosphate (9-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-2-F-adenine 5'-phosphate, F-araAMP) leads to regressions and cures of human tumor xenografts that express Escherichia coli purine nucleoside phosphorylase (EcPNP). This occurs despite the fact that fludarabine (F-araA) is a relatively poor substrate for EcPNP, and is cleaved to liberate 2-fluoroadenine at a rate only 0.3% that of the natural E.

The Crystal Structure of Dph2 in Complex with Elongation Factor 2 Reveals the Structural Basis for the First Step of Diphthamide Biosynthesis.

Elongation factor 2 (EF-2), a five-domain, GTP-dependent ribosomal translocase of archaebacteria and eukaryotes, undergoes post-translational modification to form diphthamide on a specific histidine residue in domain IV prior to binding the ribosome. The first step of diphthamide biosynthesis in archaebacteria is catalyzed by Dph2, a homodimeric radical -adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzyme having a noncanonical architecture. Here, we describe a 3.

Menaquinone Biosynthesis: Biochemical and Structural Studies of Chorismate Dehydratase.

Menaquinone (MK, vitamin K) is a lipid-soluble quinone that participates in the bacterial electron transport chain. In mammalian cells, vitamin K functions as an essential vitamin for the activation of several proteins involved in blood clotting and bone metabolism. MqnA is the first enzyme on the futalosine-dependent pathway to menaquinone and catalyzes the aromatization of chorismate by water loss.

Towards the structural characterization of the human methyltransferome.

Approximately 2000 structures of methyltransferases (MTases) are currently available, displaying fifteen different folds for binding a methyl donor and providing molecular level insight into nearly half the human methyltransferome. Several MTases involved in gene expression and regulation are catalytically inefficient when isolated, and their catalytic domains often show inhibitory active site architectures. Recently reported structures of complexes that more closely reflect biological context have begun to reveal the structural basis of activation.

Organometallic and radical intermediates reveal mechanism of diphthamide biosynthesis.

Diphthamide biosynthesis involves a carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction catalyzed by a radical S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzyme that cleaves a carbon-sulfur (C-S) bond in SAM to generate a 3-amino-3-carboxypropyl (ACP) radical. Using rapid freezing, we have captured an organometallic intermediate with an iron-carbon (Fe-C) bond between ACP and the enzyme's [4Fe-4S] cluster. In the presence of the substrate protein, elongation factor 2, this intermediate converts to an organic radical, formed by addition of the ACP radical to a histidine side chain.

Biochemical Characterization and Structural Basis of Reactivity and Regioselectivity Differences between Burkholderia thailandensis and Burkholderia glumae 1,6-Didesmethyltoxoflavin N-Methyltransferase.

Burkholderia glumae converts the guanine base of guanosine triphosphate into an azapteridine and methylates both the pyrimidine and triazine rings to make toxoflavin. Strains of Burkholderia thailandensis and Burkholderia pseudomallei have a gene cluster encoding seven putative biosynthetic enzymes that resembles the toxoflavin gene cluster. Four of the enzymes are similar in sequence to BgToxBCDE, which have been proposed to make 1,6-didesmethyltoxoflavin (1,6-DDMT).

Structural studies of viperin, an antiviral radical SAM enzyme.

Viperin is an IFN-inducible radical -adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzyme that inhibits viral replication. We determined crystal structures of an anaerobically prepared fragment of mouse viperin (residues 45-362) complexed with -adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) or 5'-deoxyadenosine (5'-dAdo) and l-methionine (l-Met). Viperin contains a partial (βα)-barrel fold with a disordered N-terminal extension (residues 45-74) and a partially ordered C-terminal extension (residues 285-362) that bridges the partial barrel to form an overall closed barrel structure.

Substrate-Dependent Cleavage Site Selection by Unconventional Radical S-Adenosylmethionine Enzymes in Diphthamide Biosynthesis.

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAM) has a sulfonium ion with three distinct C-S bonds. Conventional radical SAM enzymes use a [4Fe-4S] cluster to cleave homolytically the C-S bond of SAM to generate a 5'-deoxyadenosyl radical, which catalyzes various downstream chemical reactions. Radical SAM enzymes involved in diphthamide biosynthesis, such as Pyrococcus horikoshii Dph2 (PhDph2) and yeast Dph1-Dph2 instead cleave the C-S bond of methionine to generate a 3-amino-3-carboxylpropyl radical.

Lysine relay mechanism coordinates intermediate transfer in vitamin B6 biosynthesis.

Substrate channeling has emerged as a common mechanism for enzymatic intermediate transfer. A conspicuous gap in knowledge concerns the use of covalent lysine imines in the transfer of carbonyl-group-containing intermediates, despite their wideuse in enzymatic catalysis. Here we show how imine chemistry operates in the transfer of covalent intermediates in pyridoxal 5'-phosphate biosynthesis by the Arabidopsis thaliana enzyme Pdx1.

Lyme disease spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi does not require thiamin.

Thiamin pyrophosphate (ThDP), the active form of thiamin (vitamin B), is believed to be an essential cofactor for all living organisms. Here, we report the unprecedented result that thiamin is dispensable for the growth of the Lyme disease pathogen Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb). Bb lacks genes for thiamin biosynthesis and transport as well as known ThDP-dependent enzymes, and we were unable to detect thiamin or its derivatives in Bb cells.

Crystal Structures of the Iron-Sulfur Cluster-Dependent Quinolinate Synthase in Complex with Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate, Iminoaspartate Analogues, and Quinolinate.

The quinolinate synthase of prokaryotes and photosynthetic eukaryotes, NadA, contains a [4Fe-4S] cluster with unknown function. We report crystal structures of Pyrococcus horikoshii NadA in complex with dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), iminoaspartate analogues, and quinolinate. DHAP adopts a nearly planar conformation and chelates the [4Fe-4S] cluster via its keto and hydroxyl groups.

Biochemical and structural characterization of Klebsiella pneumoniae oxamate amidohydrolase in the uric acid degradation pathway.

HpxW from the ubiquitous pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae is involved in a novel uric acid degradation pathway downstream from the formation of oxalurate. Specifically, HpxW is an oxamate amidohydrolase which catalyzes the conversion of oxamate to oxalate and is a member of the Ntn-hydrolase superfamily. HpxW is autoprocessed from an inactive precursor to form a heterodimer, resulting in a 35.

Burkholderia glumae ToxA Is a Dual-Specificity Methyltransferase That Catalyzes the Last Two Steps of Toxoflavin Biosynthesis.

Toxoflavin is a major virulence factor of the rice pathogen Burkholderia glumae. The tox operon of B. glumae contains five putative toxoflavin biosynthetic genes toxABCDE.

Structural Basis for Iron-Mediated Sulfur Transfer in Archael and Yeast Thiazole Synthases.

Thiamin diphosphate is an essential cofactor in all forms of life and plays a key role in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism. Its biosynthesis involves separate syntheses of the pyrimidine and thiazole moieties, which are then coupled to form thiamin monophosphate. A final phosphorylation produces the active form of the cofactor.

Polyketide Ring Expansion Mediated by a Thioesterase, Chain Elongation and Cyclization Domain, in Azinomycin Biosynthesis: Characterization of AziB and AziG.

The azinomycins are a family of potent antitumor agents with the ability to form interstrand cross-links with DNA. This study reports on the unusual biosynthetic formation of the 5-methyl naphthoate moiety, which is essential for effective DNA association. While sequence analysis predicts that the polyketide synthase (AziB) catalyzes the formation of this naphthoate, 2-methylbenzoic acid, a truncated single-ring product, is formed instead.

Anaerobic 5-Hydroxybenzimidazole Formation from Aminoimidazole Ribotide: An Unanticipated Intersection of Thiamin and Vitamin B₁₂ Biosynthesis.

Comparative genomics of the bacterial thiamin pyrimidine synthase (thiC) revealed a paralogue of thiC (bzaF) clustered with anaerobic vitamin B12 biosynthetic genes. Here we demonstrate that BzaF is a radical S-adenosylmethionine enzyme that catalyzes the remarkable conversion of aminoimidazole ribotide (AIR) to 5-hydroxybenzimidazole (5-HBI). We identify the origin of key product atoms and propose a reaction mechanism.

Different polyamine pathways from bacteria have replaced eukaryotic spermidine biosynthesis in ciliates Tetrahymena thermophila and Paramecium tetaurelia.

The polyamine spermidine is absolutely required for growth and cell proliferation in eukaryotes, due to its role in post-translational modification of essential translation elongation factor eIF5A, mediated by deoxyhypusine synthase. We have found that free-living ciliates Tetrahymena and Paramecium lost the eukaryotic genes encoding spermidine biosynthesis: S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (AdoMetDC) and spermidine synthase (SpdSyn). In Tetrahymena, they were replaced by a gene encoding a fusion protein of bacterial AdoMetDC and SpdSyn, present as three copies.

Non-canonical active site architecture of the radical SAM thiamin pyrimidine synthase.

Radical S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzymes use a [4Fe-4S] cluster to generate a 5'-deoxyadenosyl radical. Canonical radical SAM enzymes are characterized by a β-barrel-like fold and SAM anchors to the differentiated iron of the cluster, which is located near the amino terminus and within the β-barrel, through its amino and carboxylate groups. Here we show that ThiC, the thiamin pyrimidine synthase in plants and bacteria, contains a tethered cluster-binding domain at its carboxy terminus that moves in and out of the active site during catalysis.

Ethenoguanines undergo glycosylation by nucleoside 2'-deoxyribosyltransferases at non-natural sites.

Deoxyribosyl transferases and functionally related purine nucleoside phosphorylases are used extensively for synthesis of non-natural deoxynucleosides as pharmaceuticals or standards for characterizing and quantitating DNA adducts. Hence exploring the conformational tolerance of the active sites of these enzymes is of considerable practical interest. We have determined the crystal structure at 2.

Radical S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzymes in cofactor biosynthesis: a treasure trove of complex organic radical rearrangement reactions.

In this minireview, we describe the radical S-adenosylmethionine enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of thiamin, menaquinone, molybdopterin, coenzyme F420, and heme. Our focus is on the remarkably complex organic rearrangements involved, many of which have no precedent in organic or biological chemistry.

Co-opting sulphur-carrier proteins from primary metabolic pathways for 2-thiosugar biosynthesis.

Sulphur is an essential element for life and is ubiquitous in living systems. Yet how the sulphur atom is incorporated into many sulphur-containing secondary metabolites is poorly understood. For bond formation between carbon and sulphur in primary metabolites, the major ionic sulphur sources are the persulphide and thiocarboxylate groups on sulphur-carrier (donor) proteins.

Structure of a Clostridium botulinum C143S thiaminase I/thiamin complex reveals active site architecture .

Thiaminases are responsible for the degradation of thiamin and its metabolites. Two classes of thiaminases have been identified based on their three-dimensional structures and their requirements for a nucleophilic second substrate. Although the reactions of several thiaminases have been characterized, the physiological role of thiamin degradation is not fully understood.