Fabrication of compositionally and topographically complex robust tissue forms by 3D-electrochemical compaction of collagen.

Collagen solutions are phase-transformed to mechanically robust shell structures with curviplanar topographies using electrochemically-induced pH gradients. The process enables rapid layer-by-layer deposition of collagen-rich mixtures over the entire field simultaneously to obtain compositionally diverse multilayered structures. The in-plane tensile strength and modulus of the electrocompacted collagen sheet samples were 5200-fold and 2300-fold greater than those of the uncompacted collagen samples.