Development of an electro-pneumatic calf muscle actuator to estimate peripheral venous oxygen saturation using photoplethysmography.

In pulse oximetry, arterial blood pulsations are used to estimate peripheral arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) using photoplethysmography (PPG). On the contrary, peripheral venous oxygen saturation (SvO2) assessment remains challenging due to the absence of rhythmic blood volume fluctuations in the venous system. This paper introduces an electro-pneumatic system emulating the Venous Muscle Pump Test (VMPT) to induce venous blood pulsations.