Retina and Brain Display Early and Differential Molecular and Cellular Changes in the 3xTg-AD Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

The concept 'the retina as a window to the brain' has been increasingly explored in Alzheimer´s disease (AD) in recent years, since some patients present visual alterations before the first symptoms of dementia. The retina is an extension of the brain and can be assessed by noninvasive methods. However, assessing the retina for AD diagnosis is still a matter of debate.

Gut-brain connection: The neuroprotective effects of the anti-diabetic drug liraglutide.

Long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogues marketed for type 2 diabetes (T2D) treatment have been showing positive and protective effects in several different tissues, including pancreas, heart or even brain. This gut secreted hormone plays a potent insulinotropic activity and an important role in maintaining glucose homeostasis. Furthermore, growing evidences suggest the occurrence of several commonalities between T2D and neurodegenerative diseases, insulin resistance being pointed as a main cause for cognitive decline and increased risk to develop dementia.

Vascular, oxidative, and synaptosomal abnormalities during aging and the progression of type 2 diabetes.

Alterations in brain structure and function are a well-known long-term complication of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Although the mechanism(s) by which T2D lead(s) to cognitive dysfunction and neuronal cells degeneration continue(s) to be a matter of debate, vascular alterations emerged as major players in this scenario. This study was aimed to evaluate the antioxidant defenses and oxidative markers present in brain vessels and synaptosomes from 3- and 12-month-old Goto- Kakizaki (GK) rats, a spontaneous non-obese model of T2D, and Wistar control rats.