Toward the Circular Economy of Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Abundance, Extraction, Applications, and Environmental Impacts.

Rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly critical to the high-technology and low-carbon economy. With a shift to sustainable socioeconomic development that aims to be less fossil fuel dependent, global demand for REEs continues to rise, despite their uncertain supply chain and high environmental impact of production. Here, we review recent research on REEs, including global reserve assessment, REE-based applications, major REE production pathways, environmental impacts, and the potential to leverage circular economies within the REE industry.