A novel malaria mathematical model: integrating vector and non-vector transmission pathways.

Background: Malaria remains one of the most significant global health challenges, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. Despite ongoing control efforts, malaria transmission persists due to complex biological, environmental, and socio-economic factors. Traditional malaria models have primarily focused on vector-borne transmission, overlooking the growing importance of non-vector transmission pathways, such as blood transfusions, congenital transmission, and human-to-human transmission through healthcare settings.