National and Transnational Security Implications of Asymmetric Access to and Use of Biological Data.

Biology and biotechnology have changed dramatically during the past 20 years, in part because of increases in computational capabilities and use of engineering principles to study biology. The advances in supercomputing, data storage capacity, and cloud platforms enable scientists throughout the world to generate, analyze, share, and store vast amounts of data, some of which are biological and much of which may be used to understand the human condition, agricultural systems, evolution, and environmental ecosystems. These advances and applications have enabled: (1) the emergence of data science, which involves the development of new algorithms to analyze and visualize data; and (2) the use of engineering approaches to manipulate or create new biological organisms that have specific functions, such as production of industrial chemical precursors and development of environmental bio-based sensors.

[The history of the weekly revue Die medicinische Reform (1848/49) and exchange of letters between Rudolf Virchows and his publisher George Reimer].

The medical journal Medicinische Reform. Eine Wochenschrift edited by Rudolf Virchow and Rudolf Leubuscher in Berlin from July 1848 to June 1849 was in spite of its short life-time one of the most important and influential periodicals during the time of German revolution and medical reforms in the middle of the 19th century. The paper gives a view of the history of edition of this ephemeral but outstanding journal as an essential source for our knowledge of the development of social medicine in Germany.

[Paul Konitzer (1894-1947): hygienist, physician, social medicine and health politician].

Paul Konitzer was one of the outstanding and well-known physicians in the years after the World War II in East-Germany. THe paper describes his professional way as hygienist, social medical, municipal physician and last but not least as health politician in the times of four different political regimes: the imperial era in Germany till 1918, the time of "Weimarer Republic" till 1933, the Nazi dictatorship till 1945 and the early years in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. The life of Konitzer is a typical example of the fate of a German doctor in the first half of the 20th century.

[The history of medical physics and biophysics at the Humboldt University in Berlin].

The present Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics (former Institute of Radiation Research) was established on September 1st in 1923 by Walter Friedrich (1883-1968). It was after the Institute in Frankfurt A.M.

[Selmar Aschheim (1878-1965) and Bernhard Zondek (1891-1966). On the fate of 2 Jewish physicians and researchers at the Berlin Charité Hospital].

In 1927, Selmar Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek developed the first biological pregnancy test by urine hormone detection. This so-called Aschheim-Zondek-reaction was a practical application of their research about the effects of anteropituitary hormones (gonadotrophin) on the female sexual organs and pregnancy. Life and scientific merits of these two gynecologists working in Berlin until 1933 are demonstrated.

[Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) and his contacts with East European physicians at the time of testing the first chemioterapeutics].

Among numerous scientific contacts which Paul Ehrlich had with foreign scientists information about his contacts with East European scientists is very limited. The communiqué will deal with some of the particulars concerning Ehrlich's co-operation with physicians from East Europe directly before the practical application of the chemioterapeutics among others he was in touch with the Russians: Georgi N. Gabryczewski, Alexander A.

[100th anniversary of the Institute of Public Health at the Greifswald University].

The presented study reports on the history and development of the Institute of Hygiene at the University of Greifswald, which was founded in 1888. The first decades of this Institute were shaped by the assistant of Robert Koch, Friedrich Loeffler (1852-1915), an important microbiologist and one of the founders of virology. After 1945 under new social and political conditions specially the Social Hygiene and Occupational Medicine have been expanded and taken up into the lectures.

[Development, dissemination and effectiveness of eugenic (racial public health) ideas in the abuse of the prevention concept in medicine].

The scientific social hygiene and the eugenics (racial hygiene) based on biologistical concepts nearly simultaneously developed by the turn from 19th to 20th century. Whereas the prophylaxis has been a centralized social-hygienic request, the eugenics has been orientated on the transfer of the principle of selection and the regulations of the human procreation. The intermixture of partial aspects of both these concepts by uptake of eugenic ideas into social-hygienic samples and the declaration of the eugenics to be the "generative prophylaxis" or "hygiene of procreation" during the first third of the 20th century caused a temporary abuse of the term prophylaxis in the medicine.

[Obstetrics and gynecology in the medical education curriculum in the 19th century].

The paper gives a survey on development of teaching in obstetrics and gynaecology at German universities in 19th century. Three aspects of these part of medical education are described: the establishment of obstetrics and gynaecology in the medical curriculum and orders of examination, institutional development of obstetrics and gynaecology as an obligatory part of medical education, the growth of specific methods of teaching in obstetrics and gynaecology.