The transposed-word effect provides no unequivocal evidence for parallel processing.

Studies using a grammaticality decision task have revealed surprising flexibility in the processing of word order during sentence reading in both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts. Participants in these studies typically exhibit a transposed-word effect, in which they make more errors and slower correct responses for stimuli that contain a word transposition and are derived from grammatical as compared to ungrammatical base sentences. Some researchers have used this finding to argue that words are encoded in parallel during reading, such that multiple words can be processed simultaneously and might be recognised out of order.

Phonological parafoveal pre-processing in children reading English sentences.

Although previous research has shown that, in English, both adult and teenage readers parafoveally pre-process phonological information during silent reading, to date, no research has been conducted to investigate such processing in children. Here we used the boundary paradigm during silent sentence reading, to ascertain whether typically developing English children, like adults, parafoveally process words phonologically. Participants' eye movements (adults: n = 48; children: n = 48) were recorded as they read sentences which contained, in preview, correctly spelled words (e.

The importance of the first letter in children's parafoveal preprocessing in English: Is it phonologically or orthographically driven?

For both adult and child readers of English, the first letter of a word plays an important role in lexical identification. Using the boundary paradigm during silent sentence reading, we examined whether the first-letter bias in parafoveal preprocessing is phonologically or orthographically driven and whether this differs between skilled adult and beginner child readers. Participants read sentences that contained either a correctly spelled word in preview (identity; e.

Parafoveal pre-processing in children reading English: The importance of external letters.

Although previous research has demonstrated that for adults external letters of words are more important than internal letters for lexical processing during reading, no comparable research has been conducted with children. This experiment explored, using the boundary paradigm during silent sentence reading, whether parafoveal pre-processing in English is more affected by the manipulation of external letters or internal letters, and whether this differs between skilled adult and beginner child readers. Six previews were generated: identity (e.

The Changing Role of Phonology in Reading Development.

Processing of both a word's orthography (its printed form) and phonology (its associated speech sounds) are critical for lexical identification during reading, both in beginning and skilled readers. Theories of learning to read typically posit a developmental change, from early readers' reliance on phonology to more skilled readers' development of direct orthographic-semantic links. Specifically, in becoming a skilled reader, the extent to which an individual processes phonology during lexical identification is thought to decrease.

Peer relationships and prosocial behaviour differences across disruptive behaviours.

It is unclear if impairments in social functioning and peer relationships significantly differ across common developmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), and associated callous-unemotional traits (CU traits). The current study explored sex differences and symptoms of parent- and teacher-reported psychopathology on peer relationships and prosocial behaviour in a sample of 147 referred children and adolescents (aged 5-17 years; 120 m). The results showed that increases in parent-reported ADHD Inattentive symptoms and teacher-reported ADHD Hyperactive-Impulsive symptoms, CD, ODD, and CU traits were significantly associated with peer relationship problems across sex.