Interferon gamma, lipopolysaccharide, and modified-live viral vaccines stimulation alter the mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor α, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and interferon β in bovine alveolar macrophages.

To understand the pathogenesis of bovine respiratory disease (BRD), it is necessary to elucidate the mechanisms of alveolar macrophage regulation by cytokines and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Moreover, "non-specific effects (NSEs)" an innate immune regulatory mechanism in response to vaccines containing PAMPs, has recently attracted attention. It may be applied to BRD control, but there is limited knowledge in bovine.