CMPG1-dependent cell death follows perception of diverse pathogen elicitors at the host plasma membrane and is suppressed by Phytophthora infestans RXLR effector AVR3a.

• Little is known about how effectors from filamentous eukaryotic plant pathogens manipulate host defences. Recently, Phytophthora infestans RXLR effector AVR3a has been shown to target and stabilize host E3 ligase CMPG1, which is required for programmed cell death (PCD) triggered by INF1. We investigated the involvement of CMPG1 in PCD elicited by perception of diverse pathogen proteins, and assessed whether AVR3a could suppress each.

Phytophthora infestans effector AVR3a is essential for virulence and manipulates plant immunity by stabilizing host E3 ligase CMPG1.

Fungal and oomycete plant pathogens translocate effector proteins into host cells to establish infection. However, virulence targets and modes of action of their effectors are unknown. Effector AVR3a from potato blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans is translocated into host cells and occurs in two forms: AVR3a(KI), which is detected by potato resistance protein R3a, strongly suppresses infestin 1 (INF1)-triggered cell death (ICD), whereas AVR3a(EM), which evades recognition by R3a, weakly suppresses host ICD.

Towards understanding the virulence functions of RXLR effectors of the oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora infestans.

Plant pathogens establish infection by secretion of effector proteins that may be delivered inside host cells to manipulate innate immunity. It is increasingly apparent that the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) contributes significantly to the regulation of plant defences and, as such, is a target for pathogen effectors. Bacterial effectors delivered by the type III and IV secretion systems have been shown to interact with components of the host UPS.

Validity of self reported male balding patterns in epidemiological studies.

Background: Several studies have investigated the association between male pattern baldness and disease such as prostate cancer and cardiovascular disease. Limitations in the lack of standardized instruments to measure male pattern baldness have resulted in researchers measuring balding patterns in a variety of ways. This paper examines the accuracy and reliability of assessment of balding patterns by both trained observers and men themselves, using the Hamilton-Norwood classification system.