Investigating Non-Native Ribbon Worm as a Potential Source of Tetrodotoxin in British Bivalve Shellfish.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin found in several phylogenetically diverse organisms, some of which are sought as seafood. Since 2015, TTX has been reported in bivalve shellfish from several estuarine locations along the Mediterranean and European Atlantic coasts, posing an emerging food safety concern. Although reports on spatial and temporal distribution have increased in recent years, processes leading to TTX accumulation in European bivalves are yet to be described.

The Presence of in North Atlantic Aquaculture Sites, Implications for Monitoring Amnesic Shellfish Toxins.

The farming of shellfish plays an important role in providing sustainable economic growth in coastal, rural communities in Scotland and acts as an anchor industry, supporting a range of ancillary jobs in the processing, distribution and exporting industries. The Scottish Government is encouraging shellfish farmers to double their economic contribution by 2030. These farmers face numerous challenges to reach this goal, among which is the problem caused by toxin-producing microplankton that can contaminate their shellfish, leading to harvesting site closure and the recall of product.

Combining Nanopore Sequencing with Recombinase Polymerase Amplification Enables Identification of Dinoflagellates from the Genus, Providing a Rapid, Field Deployable Tool.

The armoured dinoflagellate can be found throughout many of the world's temperate and tropical marine environments. The genus has been studied extensively since approximately half of its members produce a family of potent neurotoxins, collectively called saxitoxin. These compounds represent a significant threat to animal and environmental health.

The Common Sunstar -A Neurotoxic Starfish.

Saxitoxins (STXs) are a family of potent neurotoxins produced naturally by certain species of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria which are extremely toxic to mammalian nervous systems. The accumulation of STXs in bivalve molluscs can significantly impact animal and human health. Recent work conducted in the North Sea highlighted the widespread presence of various saxitoxins in a range of benthic organisms, with the common sunstar () demonstrating high concentrations of saxitoxins.

Performance Characteristics of Refined LC-FLD and HILIC-MS/MS Methods for the Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Shrimp, Whelk, and Crab.

Background: Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSP) toxins have been reported in non-bivalve shellfish species, including crustaceans and gastropods. Routine surveillance of these species is currently conducted in parts of England. To date, detection methods have not been validated for these matrices.

Application of Six Detection Methods for Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Shellfish from Four Regions within Latin America.

With the move away from use of mouse bioassay (MBA) to test bivalve mollusc shellfish for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, countries around the world are having to adopt non-animal-based alternatives that fulfil ethical and legal requirements. Various assays have been developed which have been subjected to single-laboratory and multi-laboratory validation studies, gaining acceptance as official methods of analysis and approval for use in some countries as official control testing methods. The majority of validation studies conducted to date do not, however, incorporate shellfish species sourced from Latin America.

Paralytic shellfish toxins and associated toxin profiles in bivalve mollusc shellfish from Argentina.

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning is a potentially fatal syndrome, resulting from the filter-feeding activities of marine molluscs accumulating harmful neurotoxins naturally occurring in microalgae. Outbreaks are well recognised throughout most regions of the world, but with the highest levels of toxicity to date recorded in mussels from Argentina. Whilst toxicity has been documented for selected outbreaks over the years, testing has been conducted using a mouse bioassay.

Andean drought and glacial retreat tied to Greenland warming during the last glacial period.

Abrupt warming events recorded in Greenland ice cores known as Dansgaard-Oeschger (DO) interstadials are linked to changes in tropical circulation during the last glacial cycle. Corresponding variations in South American summer monsoon (SASM) strength are documented, most commonly, in isotopic records from speleothems, but less is known about how these changes affected precipitation and Andean glacier mass balance. Here we present a sediment record spanning the last ~50 ka from Lake Junín (Peru) in the tropical Andes that has sufficient chronologic precision to document abrupt climatic events on a centennial-millennial time scale.

The Application of Nanopore Sequencing Technology to the Study of Dinoflagellates: A Proof of Concept Study for Rapid Sequence-Based Discrimination of Potentially Harmful Algae.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a naturally occurring global phenomena that have the potential to impact fisheries, leisure and ecosystems, as well as posing a significant hazard to animal and human health. There is significant interest in the development and application of methodologies to study all aspects of the causative organisms and toxins associated with these events. This paper reports the first application of nanopore sequencing technology for the detection of eukaryotic harmful algal bloom organisms.

Variability and profiles of lipophilic toxins in bivalves from Great Britain during five and a half years of monitoring: azaspiracids and yessotoxins.

Cefas has been responsible for the delivery of official control biotoxin testing of bivalve molluscs from Great Britain for just over a decade. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) methodology has been used for the quantitation of lipophilic toxins (LTs) since 2011. The temporal and spatial distribution of okadaic acid group toxins and profiles in bivalves between 2011 and 2016 have been recently reported.

Development of a TaqMan qPCR assay for detection of spp and application to harmful algal bloom monitoring.

The Genus is a widespread dinoflagellate marine phytoplankton that is the primary causative organism causing Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) intoxications in European waters. EU food safety directives specify that EU Member States must implement a routine monitoring programme to mitigate risks associated with bio-accumulation of biotoxins by bivalve shellfish, such as those produced by This strategic drive comprises of both direct testing of bivalve flesh for the presence of regulated toxins and an early warning phytoplankton monitoring programme. In the UK the flesh testing moved away from animal bio-assays to analytical chemistry techniques, whereas phytoplankton monitoring methods have seen little technological advancement since implementation.

New Invasive Nemertean Species () in England with High Levels of Tetrodotoxin and a Microbiome Linked to Toxin Metabolism.

The marine nemertean originates from the Pacific Ocean but in recent years has been discovered in northern Europe. The species has been associated with high levels of the marine neurotoxin Tetrodotoxin, traditionally associated with Pufferfish Poisoning. This study reports the first discovery of two organisms of in the UK, showing the geographical extent of this species is wider than originally described.

Variability and profiles of lipophilic toxins in bivalves from Great Britain during five and a half years of monitoring: Okadaic acid, dinophysis toxins and pectenotoxins.

Official control biotoxin testing of bivalve molluscs from Great Britain has been conducted by Cefas for over a decade. Reflecting the changes in legislation, bioassays were gradually replaced by analytical methods, firstly for analysis of Paralytic shellfish toxins, followed by introduction of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (LCMS/MS) method for lipophilic toxins (LTs) in 2011. Twelve compounds, representing three main groups of regulated lipophilic toxins, as well as two non-regulated cyclic imines were examined in over 20,500 samples collected between July 2011 and December 2016.

A Rapid Method for the Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Utilizing Standard Pressure HPLC: Refinement of AOAC 2005.06.

Superficially porous column technologies have previously been shown to provide faster chromatographic analysis of toxin oxidation products when analyzing shellfish for paralytic shellfish toxins. While sub 3 μm fused core columns have facilitated enhanced method performance, including significantly lower analysis times and lower LOD, they were also found to last for only a few hundred injections before pressure increases rendered them unusable with standard HPLC. Recently 5 μm superficially porous columns have become commercially available.

South Greenland ice-sheet collapse during Marine Isotope Stage 11.

Varying levels of boreal summer insolation and associated Earth system feedbacks led to differing climate and ice-sheet states during late-Quaternary interglaciations. In particular, Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11 was an exceptionally long interglaciation and potentially had a global mean sea level 6 to 13 metres above the present level around 410,000 to 400,000 years ago, implying substantial mass loss from the Greenland ice sheet (GIS). There are, however, no model simulations and only limited proxy data to constrain the magnitude of the GIS response to climate change during this 'super interglacial', thus confounding efforts to assess climate/ice-sheet threshold behaviour and associated sea-level rise.

Variability of paralytic shellfish toxin occurrence and profiles in bivalve molluscs from Great Britain from official control monitoring as determined by pre-column oxidation liquid chromatography and implications for applying immunochemical tests.

As the official control monitoring laboratory in Great Britain for the analysis of marine biotoxins in shellfish, Cefas have for the past five years conducted routine monitoring for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PST) using a non-animal alternative method to the mouse bioassay reference method; a refined version of the AOAC 2005.06 pre-column oxidation liquid chromatography method. Application of this instrumental methodology has enabled the generation of data not only on the occurrence and magnitude of PST events, but also the quantitation and assessment of different PST profiles.

A feasibility study into the production of a freeze-dried oyster reference material for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins.

Matrix reference materials are an essential component for the validation and quality control of analytical methodologies for the quantitation of marine biotoxins in shellfish. Given the potential advantages of reference materials in powder form, a study was conducted to assess the feasibility for the production of a freeze-dried oyster tissue reference material containing a range of important paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. One bulk sample of a wet oyster tissue homogenate was generated following mass culturing of toxic Alexandrium and oyster feeding experiments.

Feasibility studies into the production of gamma-irradiated oyster tissue reference materials for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins.

A study was conducted to assess the feasibility for the production of sterile, stable and homogenous shellfish reference materials containing known concentrations of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins. Pacific oysters were contaminated with toxins following mass culturing of toxic algae and shellfish feeding experiments. Live oysters were shucked and tissues homogenised, before measuring into multiple aliquots, with one batch subjected to gamma irradiation treatment and the other remaining untreated.

Transformation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in UK surf clams (Spisula solida) for targeted production of reference materials.

The periodic occurrence of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxins in UK surf clams and the recent move away from biological assays for PSP testing resulted in the need to determine method performance characteristics for the replacement analytical method in this species. With the requirement for laboratory reference materials to aid this validation together with known issues relating to toxin transformation in live clams and homogenised tissue, there was the need to assess the toxin transformation characteristics of PSP toxins in surf clam tissue. Initial work examined the rates of toxin transformation in UK surf clam tissue incubated with toxin standards, showing rapid transformation of N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins with slower transformation of carbamate toxins.

Rapid liquid chromatography for paralytic shellfish toxin analysis using superficially porous chromatography with AOAC Official Method 2005.06.

The bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins in mussels, oysters, cockles, hard clams, razors, and king scallops is monitored in England, Scotland, and Wales by AOAC Official Method 2005.06 LC-with fluorescence detection (FLD). One of the commonly perceived disadvantages of using this method is the long turnaround time and low throughput in a busy laboratory environment.

Transformation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in Crassostrea gigas and Pecten maximus reference materials.

Matrix reference materials are an important requirement for the assessment of method performance characteristics and for routine quality control. In the field of marine toxin testing where biological assays have been used and where modern analytical testing methods are now becoming available, this requirement has become an urgent one. Various approaches are utilised for preparation of such materials in the absence of available naturally occurring toxic shellfish samples.

Refinement of AOAC Official Method 2005.06 liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection method to improve performance characteristics for the determination of paralytic shellfish toxins in king and queen scallops.

AOAC Official Method 2005.06 LC-fluorescence detection (FLD) method is an official alternative to the mouse bioassay for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in bivalve shellfish. To validate the method for species of relevance to the UK official control monitoring program, the method performance characteristics were tested for whole king and queen scallops.

Sr-Nd-Pb isotope evidence for ice-sheet presence on southern Greenland during the Last Interglacial.

To ascertain the response of the southern Greenland Ice Sheet (GIS) to a boreal summer climate warmer than at present, we explored whether southern Greenland was deglaciated during the Last Interglacial (LIG), using the Sr-Nd-Pb isotope ratios of silt-sized sediment discharged from southern Greenland. Our isotope data indicate that no single southern Greenland geologic terrane was completely deglaciated during the LIG, similar to the Holocene. Differences in sediment sources during the LIG relative to the early Holocene denote, however, greater southern GIS retreat during the LIG.

Single-laboratory validation of a refined AOAC HPLC method 2005.06 for oysters, cockles, and clams in U.K. shellfish.

In 2009, a refined HPLC method based on AOAC Official Method 2005.06 was developed and validated for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in mussels. A single-laboratory validation study of this method was undertaken here for the analysis of PSP toxins in oysters, cockles, clams, and razor clams.