Black Babies Matter.

Despite dramatic advancements in neonatal intensive care since the 1960s, African-American infants still have more than a two-fold higher first-year mortality rate than non-Latinx White infants. Our essay examines the impact of upstream factors closely linked to the historical and contemporary context of structural racism in the United States on the African-American women's birth outcome disadvantage. In the process, we propose a paradigm to address the racial health inequity in adverse birth outcome by considering the interplay of racism and social class.

Early and Late Preterm Birth Rates Among US-Born Urban Women: The Effect of Men's Lifelong Class Status.

Objective: To ascertain the relation of men's lifelong class status (as measured by neighborhood income) to the rates of early (< 34 weeks) and late (34-36 weeks) preterm birth (PTB).

Methods: Stratified and multilevel, multivariable binomial regression analyses were computed on the Illinois transgenerational birth-file of infants (born 1989-1991) and their parents (born 1956-1976) with appended U.S.

Low Birth Weight Among Infants Born to Black Latina Women in the United States.

Objectives To explore associations between race, nativity, and low birth weight (LBW) among Latina and non-Latina women, with special attention to the Black Latina subgroup. Methods Using US natality data from 2011 to 2013, we designed a population-based study to compare LBW (< 2500 g) rates across six groups of women with self-identified race (N = 7,865,264)-White and Black Latina, foreign-born and US-born; non-Latina Black; and non-Latina White-creating 4 models for analysis: unadjusted (Model 1) and adjusted for sociodemographic factors (Model 2), sociodemographic plus medical risk factors (Model 3), and Model 3 factors plus smoking (Model 4). Results Infant LBW rate for Black Latinas (7.

Paternal Lifelong Socioeconomic Position and Low Birth Weight Rates: Relevance to the African-American Women's Birth Outcome Disadvantage.

Objectives To determine the relation of paternal lifelong socioeconomic position (SEP) to the racial disparity in low birth weight (<2500 g, LBW) rates. Methods Stratified and multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed on an Illinois transgenerational dataset of infants (1989-1991) and their parents (1956-1976) with appended U.S.

The Relation of Neighborhood Income to the Age-Related Patterns of Preterm Birth Among White and African-American Women: The Effect of Cigarette Smoking.

Unlabelled: Objectives We investigated the contributions of cigarette smoking to the age-related patterns of preterm (<37 weeks) birth (PTB) rates among African-American and White women within the context of lifelong neighborhood income. Methods Stratified and multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed on an Illinois transgenerational dataset of non-Hispanic White and African-American infants (1989-1991) and their mothers (1956-1976) with appended US census income information.

Results: Among non-smoking African-American women (n = 20,107) with a lifelong residence in lower income neighborhoods, PTB rates decreased from 18.

Downward economic mobility and preterm birth: an exploratory study of Chicago-born upper class White mothers.

A paucity of published data exists on the factors underlying the relatively poor birth outcome of non-Hispanic White women in the United States. To determine whether downward economic mobility is a risk factor for preterm birth (<37 weeks, PTB) among upper class-born White women. Stratified and multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed on an Illinois transgenerational dataset of non-Hispanic White infants (1989-1991) and their women (1956-1976) with appended US census income information.

Maternally administered interventions for preterm infants in the NICU: effects on maternal psychological distress and mother-infant relationship.

Although studies have examined the effects of interventions focused on preterm infants, few studies have examined the effects on maternal distress (anxiety, depressive symptoms, post-traumatic stress symptoms, parenting stress) or parenting. This study examined the effects of the auditory-tactile-visual-vestibular (ATVV) intervention and kangaroo care (KC) on maternal distress and the mother-infant relationship compared to an attention control group. 240 mothers from four hospitals were randomly assigned to the three groups.

Small-for-gestational age and preterm birth across generations: a population-based study of Illinois births.

Small for gestational age (weight for gestational age <10th percentile, SGA) and preterm birth (<37 weeks, PTB) are the major determinants of infant mortality rates and racial disparities therein. To determine the generational inheritance patterns of SGA and PTB among non-Hispanic Whites and African-Americans. Stratified and multivariable binominal regression analyses were performed on an Illinois transgenerational dataset of White and African-American infants (1989-1991) and their mothers (1956-1976) with appended US census income information.

African American women's exposure to interpersonal racial discrimination in public settings and preterm birth: the effect of coping behaviors.

Objectives: To determine whether African American women's coping behaviors modify the relationship between exposure to interpersonal racial discrimination in public settings and preterm birth (<37 weeks).

Design: A case-control study was performed among African American women delivering infants at two tertiary care hospitals in Chicago, IL between July 2001-June 2005. A structured questionnaire was administered to measure maternal perceived exposure to interpersonal racial discrimination in public settings and coping behaviors.

African American women's lifetime upward economic mobility and preterm birth: the effect of fetal programming.

Objectives: We investigated whether African American mothers' upward economic mobility across the life course and having been of low birth weight are associated with the preterm birth of their children.

Methods: We performed stratified and multilevel logistic regression analyses on an Illinois transgenerational data set of African American infants (born 1989-1991) and their mothers (n = 11 265; born 1956-1976) with appended US Census income information.

Results: African American mothers with a lifelong residence in impoverished neighborhoods had a preterm birthrate of 18.

Exploring weathering: effects of lifelong economic environment and maternal age on low birth weight, small for gestational age, and preterm birth in African-American and white women.

White women experience their lowest rate of low birth weight (LBW) in their late 20s; the nadir LBW for African-American women is under 20 years with rates rising monotonically thereafter, hypothesized as due to "weathering" or deteriorating health with cumulative disadvantage. Current residential environment affects birth outcomes for all women, but little is known about the impact of early life environment. The authors linked neighborhood income to a transgenerational birth file containing infant and maternal birth data, allowing assessment of economic effects over a woman's life course.

Low birth weight across generations: the effect of economic environment.

To determine whether economic environment across generations underlies the association of maternal low birth weight (<2,500 g, LBW) and infant LBW including its preterm (<37 weeks) and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) components. Stratified and multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed on an Illinois transgenerational dataset of White and African-American infants (1989-1991) and their mothers (1956-1976) with appended US census income data. Population Attributable Risk percentages were calculated to estimate the percentage of LBW births attributable to maternal LBW.

Transgenerational effect of neighborhood poverty on low birth weight among African Americans in Cook County, Illinois.

In perinatal epidemiology, transgenerational risk factors are defined as conditions experienced by one generation that affect the pregnancy outcomes of the next generation. The authors investigated the transgenerational effect of neighborhood poverty on infant birth weight among African Americans. Stratified and multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed on an Illinois transgenerational data set with appended US Census income information.

Racial disparity in low birth weight and infant mortality.

In the United States, African-American infants have significantly worse outcomes than white infants. In this review, the authors look beyond traditional risk factors and explore the social context of race in this country in an effort to understand African-American women's long-standing pregnancy outcome disadvantage. In the process, new insights are highlighted concerning likely causes for the poor birth outcomes of white infants in this country compared with infants in most other industrialized nations.

Women's lifelong exposure to neighborhood poverty and low birth weight: a population-based study.

Objective: To determine whether women's lifelong residential environment is associated with infant low birth weight.

Methods: We performed race-specific stratified and multivariate binomial regression analyses on an Illinois vital record dataset of non-Latino White and African-American infants (1989-1991) and their mothers (1956-1975) with appended United States census income information.

Results: Non-Latino White women (N = 267) with a lifelong residence in low-income neighborhoods had a low birth weight (<2,500 g) incidence of 10.

Mortality risk of small infants varies with their mother's birthweight and race.

We analysed a transgenerational linked birth file to investigate the relationship between maternal birthweight and infant birthweight-specific mortality risk for white and African American infants. Birth records of 267,303 infants born between 1989 and 1991 were linked to records of their mothers, born between 1956 and 1976, and to their own death certificates for those dying in the first year. The means, standard deviations and z-scores were calculated for each race- and generation-specific birthweight distribution.

Preterm birth among African American and white women with a lifelong residence in high-income Chicago neighborhoods: an exploratory study.

Objective: To explore the association between race and preterm birth among women with a lifelong residence in high-income neighborhoods.

Methods: Stratified and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed on the Illinois transgenerational birthfile (infants born 1989-1991 and mothers born 1956-1975) with appended US Census income data. African American (n = 777) and non-Hispanic White (n = 2,327) infants born to mothers with a lifelong residence in Chicago census tracts with median family incomes in the top income quartile were studied.

Intergenerational birth weights among the direct female descendants of US-born and Mexican-born Mexican-American women in Illinois: an exploratory study.

Objective: To explore the intergenerational birth-weight patterns of the direct female descendants of Mexican-American women.

Design: This is a population-based study.

Methods: Stratified analyses were performed on a transgenerational dataset of 1956-1975 and 1989-1991 Illinois computerized vital records of Mexican-American infants.

Relation of maternal low birth weight to infant growth retardation and prematurity.

Objectives: This study sought to determine the relationship between maternal birth weight, infant intrauterine growth retardation, and prematurity.

Methods: Stratified and logistic regression analyses were performed on a dataset of computerized Illinois vital records of African American (N = 61,849) and White (N = 203,698) infants born between 1989 and 1991 and their mothers born between 1956 and 1975.

Results: Race-specific rates of small-for-gestational age (weight-for-gestational age <10th percentile) and preterm (<37 weeks) infants rose as maternal birth weight declined.

Very low birthweight in African American infants: the role of maternal exposure to interpersonal racial discrimination.

Objectives: We determined whether African American women's lifetime exposure to interpersonal racial discrimination is associated with pregnancy outcomes.

Methods: We performed a case-control study among 104 African American women who delivered very low birthweight (<1500 g) preterm (<37 weeks) infants and 208 African American women who delivered non-low-birthweight (>2500 g) term infants in Chicago, Ill.

Results: The unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio of very low birthweight infants for maternal lifetime exposure to interpersonal racism in 3 or more domains equaled 3.

Pregnancy outcome of Mexican-American women: the effect of generational residence in the United States.

Objective: To determine whether duration of generational residence in the United States is associated with the pregnancy outcome of Mexican Americans.

Design: This is a population-based study.

Methods: Stratified analyses were performed on a data set of 1989-1991 Illinois computerized vital records of Mexican-American infants.

Maternal support in the delivery room and birthweight among African-American women.

Objectives: We performed a hospital-based case control study of African-American mothers to explore the relationship between maternal support by a significant other in the delivery room and very low birthweight (VLBW).

Methods: We administered a structured questionnaire to mothers of VLBW (less than 1,500 g; N=104) and normal birthweight (greater or equal to 2,500 g; N=208) infants.

Results: The odds ratio for VLBW comparing women without social support in the delivery room to those with a companion was 3.

Low birth weight across generations.

Objectives: This study sought to determine the relationship between maternal birth weight, prenatal care usage, and infant birth weight.

Methods: Stratified and logistic regression analyses were performed on a dataset of computerized Illinois vital records of White (N = 187, 074) and African-American (N = 58,856) infants born between 1989 and 1991 and their mothers born between 1956 and 1975.

Results: Among White mothers who received adequate prenatal care, the low birth weight (<2500 g) rate was 4% for infants of former low birth weight mothers (N = 5230) compared to 2.