Flexible dosing of tincture of opium in the management of opioid withdrawal: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

Aims: The aim was to evaluate the clinical effectiveness, pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of a range of Tincture of Opium (TOP) doses in the management of opioid withdrawal.

Methods: Forty-five opium-dependent Thai subjects were allocated to three dosing groups (6.66, 13.