CD28 Superfamily Costimulatory Molecules in Chronic Pain: Focus on Immunomodulation.

Chronic pain has substantial effects on patients' quality of life and psychological well-being. It does not respond satisfactorily to available medicinal therapeutics because its mechanism remains unclear. Recent studies have shown a strong relationship between chronic pain and immunomodulation.

Nonisotropic chaotic vibrations of a 2D hyperbolic PDE.

Little seems to be known about the chaos of the two-dimensional (2D) hyperbolic partial differential equations (PDEs). The objective of this paper is to study the nonisotropic chaotic vibrations of a system governed by a 2D linear hyperbolic PDE with mixed derivative terms (MDTs) and a nonlinear boundary condition (NBC), where the interaction between MDTs and NBC causes the energy of such a system to rise and fall. The 2D hyperbolic system is proved to be topologically conjugate with the corresponding Riemann invariants, which are rigorously proved to be chaotic.