Qualitative Evaluation of a Practice-based Experience Pilot Program for Master of Pharmacy Students in Scotland.

To determine the views of pharmacists in central Scotland regarding experiential education for MPharm students. A thematic analysis was completed by Ms. Gillian Hendry and Dr.

Description and Evaluation of an MPharm Practice-based Experience Pilot Program.

To determine the level of support among pharmacists in central Scotland to serve as mentors and provide practice-based experience to students enrolled in a master of pharmacy degree program. A study was conducted during the 2011-2012 academic year in which first-year MPharm students in Scotland were paired with practicing pharmacists for 2 half-day visits per month. The students were integrated into the pharmacy workflow and engaged in activities ranging from date checking to counseling patients.

The Cellular Diversity of the Pedunculopontine Nucleus: Relevance to Behavior in Health and Aspects of Parkinson's Disease.

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is a rostral brainstem structure that has extensive connections with basal ganglia nuclei and the thalamus. Through these the PPN contributes to neural circuits that effect cortical and hippocampal activity. The PPN also has descending connections to nuclei of the pontine and medullary reticular formations, deep cerebellar nuclei, and the spinal cord.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus-A functional hypothesis from the comparative literature.

We present data from animal studies showing that the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus-conserved through evolution, compartmentalized, and with a complex pattern of inputs and outputs-has functions that involve formation and updates of action-outcome associations, attention, and rapid decision making. This is in contrast to previous hypotheses about pedunculopontine function, which has served as a basis for clinical interest in the pedunculopontine in movement disorders. Current animal literature points to it being neither a specifically motor structure nor a master switch for sleep regulation.

Deep brain stimulation of different pedunculopontine targets in a novel rodent model of parkinsonism.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) has been proposed as a target for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in parkinsonian patients, particularly for symptoms such as gait and postural difficulties refractory to dopaminergic treatments. Several patients have had electrodes implanted aimed at the PPTg, but outcomes have been disappointing, with little evidence that gait and posture are improved. The PPTg is a heterogeneous structure.

Selective lesions of the cholinergic neurons within the posterior pedunculopontine do not alter operant learning or nicotine sensitization.

Cholinergic neurons within the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus have been implicated in a range of functions, including behavioral state control, attention, and modulation of midbrain and basal ganglia systems. Previous experiments with excitotoxic lesions have found persistent learning impairment and altered response to nicotine following lesion of the posterior component of the PPTg (pPPTg). These effects have been attributed to disrupted input to midbrain dopamine systems, particularly the ventral tegmental area.

The roles of the nucleus accumbens core, dorsomedial striatum, and dorsolateral striatum in learning: performance and extinction of Pavlovian fear-conditioned responses and instrumental avoidance responses.

This study examined the effects of bilateral excitotoxic lesions of the nucleus accumbens core (NAc-co), dorsomedial striatum (DMS) or dorsolateral striatum (DLS) of rats on the learning and extinction of Pavlovian and instrumental components of conditioned avoidance responses (CARs). None of the lesions caused sensorimotor deficits that could affect locomotion. Lesions of the NAc-co, but not DMS or DLS, decreased unconditioned and conditioned freezing.

Updating of action-outcome associations is prevented by inactivation of the posterior pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) is in a pivotal position between the basal ganglia and brainstem: it is able to influence and regulate all levels of basal ganglia and corticostriatal activity as well as being a key component of brainstem reticular and motor control circuitry. Consistent with its anatomical position, the PPTg has previously been shown to process rapid, salient sensory input, is a target for Parkinson's disease treatments and has been implicated in associative learning. We explicitly investigated the role of the posterior pPPTg (pPPTg) in action-outcome processes, where actions are performed with the goal-directed aim of obtaining an anticipated outcome.

Evidence that conditioned avoidance responses are reinforced by positive prediction errors signaled by tonic striatal dopamine.

We conducted an experiment in which hedonia, salience and prediction error hypotheses predicted different patterns of dopamine (DA) release in the striatum during learning of conditioned avoidance responses (CARs). The data strongly favor the latter hypothesis. It predicts that during learning of the 2-way active avoidance CAR task, positive prediction errors generated when rats do not receive an anticipated footshock (which is better than expected) cause DA release that reinforces the instrumental avoidance action.

Nicotine self-administered directly into the VTA by rats is weakly reinforcing but has strong reinforcement enhancing properties.

Rationale: Rats will lever press to deliver nanolitre quantities of nicotine or the muscarinic agonist carbachol directly into the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The purpose of these experiments was to investigate further the characteristics of nicotine self-administration directly into the VTA.

Objectives: This study aimed to confirm previous data relating to intra-VTA self-administration of nicotine and carbachol and then test two hypotheses: (a) that pre-sensitisation of nicotinic receptors is needed for robust intra-VTA self administration and (b) that rats will lever press for intra-VTA nicotine if pre-trained to associate lever pressing with a rewarding outcome.

Roles of D1-like dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens and dorsolateral striatum in conditioned avoidance responses.

Rationale: Aversively motivated learning is more poorly understood than appetitively motivated learning in many aspects, including the role of dopamine receptors in different regions of the striatum.

Objectives: The present study investigated the roles of the D1-like DA receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and dorsolateral striatum (DLS) on learning and performance of conditioned avoidance responses (CARs).

Methods: Adult male Wistar rats received intraperitoneal (i.

The role of nucleus accumbens and dorsolateral striatal D2 receptors in active avoidance conditioning.

The role of dopamine (DA) in rewarding motivated actions is well established but its role in learning how to avoid aversive events is still controversial. Here we tested the role of D2-like DA receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) of rats in the learning and performance of conditioned avoidance responses (CAR). Adult male Wistar rats received systemic, intra-NAc or intra-DLS (pre- or post-training) administration of a D2-like receptor agonist (quinpirole) or antagonist ((-)sulpiride) and were given two sessions in the two-way active avoidance task.

Functional disconnection of the substantia nigra pars compacta from the pedunculopontine nucleus impairs learning of a conditioned avoidance task.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) targets nuclei in the basal ganglia, including the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), in which neuronal loss occurs in Parkinson's disease, a condition in which patients show cognitive as well as motor disturbances. Partial loss and functional abnormalities of neurons in the PPTg are also associated with Parkinson's disease. We hypothesized that the interaction of PPTg and SNc might be important for cognitive impairments and so investigated whether disrupting the connections between the PPTg and SNc impaired learning of a conditioned avoidance response (CAR) by male Wistar rats.

Bar pressing for food: differential consequences of lesions to the anterior versus posterior pedunculopontine.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) is in a key position to participate in operant reinforcement via its connections with the corticostriatal architecture and the medial reticular formation. Indeed, previous work has demonstrated that rats bearing lesions of the whole PPTg are impaired when learning to make two bar presses for amphetamine reinforcement. Anterior and posterior portions of the PPTg make different anatomical connections, including preferential projections by the anterior PPTg to substantia nigra pars compacta dopamine neurons and by the posterior PPTg to ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons.

Experimental studies of pedunculopontine functions: are they motor, sensory or integrative?

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) is involved in Parkinson's disease and has become a therapeutic target. However, its normal functions are uncertain: are they motor, sensory or integrative? This position paper reviews PPTg structure and considers experiments designed to understand its behavioural functions. The PPTg is part of the corticostriatal architecture and, consistent with this, a core deficit following lesion is the inability to properly establish action-outcome associations.

A functional dissociation of the anterior and posterior pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: excitotoxic lesions have differential effects on locomotion and the response to nicotine.

Excitotoxic lesions of posterior, but not anterior pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) change nicotine self-administration, consistent with the belief that the anterior PPTg (aPPTg) projects to substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC) and posterior PPTg (pPPTg) to the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The VTA is a likely site both of nicotine's reinforcing effect as well as its actions on locomotion. We hypothesized that pPPTg, but not aPPTg lesions, would alter locomotion in response to repeated nicotine administration by virtue of the fact that pPPTg appears to be more closely related to the VTA than is the aPPTg.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and the nucleus basalis magnocellularis: do both have a role in sustained attention?

Background: It is well established that nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NbM) lesions impair performance on tests of sustained attention. Previous work from this laboratory has also demonstrated that pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) lesioned rats make more omissions on a test of sustained attention, suggesting that it might also play a role in mediating this function. However, the results of the PPTg study were open to alternative interpretation.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and responding for sucrose reward.

Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) lesions in rodents lead to increased sucrose consumption, but the psychological deficit behind this remains uncertain. To understand better the relationship between consumption of, and motivation for, sucrose, the authors trained rats to traverse a runway for 20% or 4% sucrose solution; after 7 days, concentrations were reversed. Control rats consumed more 20% than 4% sucrose solution and promptly altered run times in response to concentration change.

How best to consider the structure and function of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: evidence from animal studies.

This review presents the hypothesis that the best way to consider the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus is by analogy with the substantia nigra. The substantia nigra contains two main compartments: the pars compacta and the pars reticulata. The former contains dopamine neurons that project widely within the basal ganglia while the latter is in receipt of corticostriatal output.

Intravenous self-administration of nicotine is altered by lesions of the posterior, but not anterior, pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus.

The reinforcing properties of nicotine involve actions at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located on dopamine (DA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) is involved in the regulation of these DA neurons, and those of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). The PPTg can be subdivided into anterior (aPPTg) and posterior (pPPTg) regions on the basis of its innervation of midbrain DA neurons - the pPPTg innervates both VTA and SNc while the aPPTg innervates SNc.

Involvement of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus in the locomotor response to repeated nicotine administration.

The locomotor altering properties of nicotine depend on activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDTg) provides a significant proportion of the cholinergic innervation of the VTA. We tested the hypothesis that the locomotor effects of nicotine depend on the functional integrity of the LDTg.

Excitotoxic lesions of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in rats impair performance on a test of sustained attention.

Recent research has suggested that the pontomesencephalic tegmentum might be an important part of a network underlying sustained attention. The largest structure of the pontomesencephalic tegmentum is the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, which has ascending connections to thalamus and with corticostriatal systems. In this experiment we examined the performance of rats following bilateral excitotoxic lesions of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus on a test of sustained attention previously used to examine frontal cortical function.

Induction of c-fos in specific thalamic nuclei following stimulation of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus.

The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) is a major source of cholinergic input to the thalamus. Tracing studies have established that the PPTg has projections to many thalamic nuclei and electrophysiological studies have shown acetylcholine (ACh) to have characteristic effects on thalamic neurons. Behavioural studies point to a role for the PPTg in attention and it is possible that a key substrate for this is the ability of the PPTg to modify sensorimotor gating through the thalamus.

Effects of changing reward on performance of the delayed spatial win-shift radial maze task in pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus lesioned rats.

Because it was designed to assess working memory, the delayed spatial win-shift (DSWS) radial maze task has been used to investigate the involvement of corticostriatal structures in executive processing. Excitotoxic lesions of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) produce profound deficits in performance of this task that are not accounted for by motor impairment. Thus, PPTg DSWS deficits are hypothesized to support a role for PPTg in complex cognitive processing.

Impaired delayed spatial win-shift behaviour on the eight arm radial maze following excitotoxic lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex in the rat.

The delayed spatial win-shift (DSWS) radial maze task requires that animals hold spatial information for reward location "on-line" both during task performance and across a delay. Temporary lidocaine inactivation of anterior cingulate (AC) and prelimbic (PL) regions of the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has revealed dissociable effects on this task, suggesting different roles within working memory for each of these areas. However, further research has shown that mPFC deficits in the rat may only be transient in nature, particularly on the radial maze.