Improve animal health to reduce livestock emissions: quantifying an open goal.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock production must be urgently tackled to substantially reduce their contribution to global warming. Simply reducing livestock numbers to this end risks impacting negatively on food security, rural livelihoods and climate change adaptation. We argue that significant mitigation of livestock emissions can be delivered immediately by improving animal health and hence production efficiency, but this route is not prioritized because its benefits, although intuitive, are poorly quantified.

Investigating the perceived versus actual gastrointestinal nematode challenge on extensive sheep farms.

Extensive farming systems form an integral part of sheep production systems across Europe. However, with innate production handicaps, declining sheep numbers and narrow economic margins, production is becoming increasingly challenging threatening the future sustainability of the industry. Gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) are a significant cause of production losses to the global sheep industry, with well-established resistance to the major anthelmintic groups.

Identification of Cotylophoron cotylophorum (Fischoeder, 1901) in cattle on St. Kitts, West Indies and its relationship with African and Asian populations.

There is limited information about the species of rumen fluke (Family Paramphistomidae) in the Caribbean. However, knowledge of species distribution is needed to better understand disease risk and epidemiology. Morphological identification is challenging with more recent DNA sequencing enabling a better understanding of rumen fluke distribution.

A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay to identify isotype 1 β-tubulin locus SNPs in synthetic double-stranded DNA.

Unlabelled: Development of sustainable gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) control strategies depends on the ability to identify the frequencies of drug-susceptible and resistant genotypes in GIN populations arising from management practices undertaken on individual farms. Resistance to BZ drugs in GINs has been shown to be conferred by the presence of defined SNPs in the isotype 1 β-tubulin locus. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays are amenable to use on a range of DNA templates and are potentially adaptable to use in practical, cost-effective, pen-side diagnostic platforms that are needed to detect anthelmintic resistance in the field.

The influence of liver fluke infection on production in sheep and cattle: a meta-analysis.

Liver flukes (Fasciola spp.) are important parasites of ruminant livestock worldwide, causing profound damage to animal health and productivity. Many reviews have discussed the results of decades of research on the impact of fluke on livestock traits such as weight gain and milk production, but there have been no known attempts to collate previous research in a quantitative manner or to determine the factors that vary between studies that find substantial effects of fluke and others concluding that effects of fluke are negligible.

A Universal Approach to Molecular Identification of Rumen Fluke Species Across Hosts, Continents, and Sample Types.

Rumen fluke are parasitic trematodes that affect domestic and wild ruminants across a wide range of countries and habitats. There are 6 major genera of rumen fluke and over 70 recognized species. Accurate species identification is important to investigate the epidemiology, pathophysiology and economic impact of rumen fluke species but paramphistomes are morphologically plastic, which has resulted in numerous instances of misclassification.

Increasing importance of anthelmintic resistance in European livestock: creation and meta-analysis of an open database.

Helminth infections are ubiquitous in grazing ruminant production systems, and are responsible for significant costs and production losses. Anthelmintic Resistance (AR) in parasites is now widespread throughout Europe, although there are still gaps in our knowledge in some regions and countries. AR is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs.

High frequency of benzimidazole resistance alleles in trichostrongyloids from Austrian sheep flocks in an alpine transhumance management system.

Background: Infections of small ruminants with trichostrongyloid nematodes often result in reduced productivity and may be detrimental to the host. Anthelmintic resistance (AR) against most anthelmintic drug classes is now widespread amongst the trichostrongyloids. Baseline establishment, followed by regular monitoring of the level of AR, is necessary for farmers and veterinarians to make informed decisions about parasite management.

Habitat and host factors associated with liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) diagnoses in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Scottish Highlands.

Background: Red deer (Cervus elaphus) are a common wild definitive host for liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) that have been the subject of limited diagnostic surveillance. This study aimed to explore the extent to which coprological diagnoses for F. hepatica in red deer in the Scottish Highlands, Scotland, are associated with variability among hosts and habitats.

Comparison of Four Diagnostic Methods for Detection and Relative Quantification of Eggs in Feces Samples.

We compared four methods for identification of eggs. With increased trade in animals within and between countries and continents, it has become important to correctly identify eggs in fecal samples. To validate the outcome of diagnostic tests, sheep feces ( = 38) were collected from naturally infected flocks in Sweden.

P-glycoprotein-9 and macrocyclic lactone resistance status in selected strains of the ovine gastrointestinal nematode, Teladorsagia circumcincta.

The Teladorsagia circumcincta P-glycoprotein-9 (Tci-pgp-9) gene has previously been implicated in multiple-anthelmintic resistance in this parasite. Here we further characterise genetic diversity in Tci-pgp-9 and its possible role in ivermectin (IVM) and multi-drug resistance using two UK field isolates of T. circumcincta, one susceptible to anthelmintics (MTci2) and the other resistant to most available anthelmintics including IVM (MTci5).

Increased Expression of a MicroRNA Correlates with Anthelmintic Resistance in Parasitic Nematodes.

Resistance to anthelmintic drugs is a major problem in the global fight against parasitic nematodes infecting humans and animals. While previous studies have identified mutations in drug target genes in resistant parasites, changes in the expression levels of both targets and transporters have also been reported. The mechanisms underlying these changes in gene expression are unresolved.

Quantification of resistant alleles in the β-tubulin gene of field strains of gastrointestinal nematodes and their relation with the faecal egg count reduction test.

Background: Benzimidazole (BZ) resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes is associated with a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at codons 167, 198 and 200 in the isotype 1 of beta-tubulin gene although in some species these SNPs have also been associated with resistance to macrocyclic lactones. In the present study we compared the levels of resistance in Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus colubriformis by means of the faecal egg reduction test (FECRT) and the percentage of resistant alleles obtained after pyrosequencing. The study was conducted in 10 naturally infected sheep flocks.

Prevalence of Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica) in Wild Red Deer (Cervus elaphus): Coproantigen ELISA Is a Practicable Alternative to Faecal Egg Counting for Surveillance in Remote Populations.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) are hosts of liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica); yet, prevalence is rarely quantified in wild populations. Testing fresh samples from remote regions by faecal examination (FE) can be logistically challenging; hence, we appraise frozen storage and the use of a coproantigen ELISA (cELISA) for F. hepatica surveillance.

Analysis of putative resistance gene loci in UK field populations of Haemonchus contortus after 6years of macrocyclic lactone use.

Sheep farmers in the UK rely on strategic anthelmintic use to treat and control gastrointestinal roundworms in their flocks. However, resistance to these drugs is now widespread and threatens the sustainability of sheep production. The mechanisms underlying resistance to the most commonly used class, the macrocyclic lactones, are not known and sensitive diagnostic tools based on molecular markers are not currently available.

Bovine and ovine rumen fluke in Ireland-Prevalence, risk factors and species identity based on passive veterinary surveillance and abattoir findings.

The prevalence of rumen fluke, the incidence of clinical paramphistomosis and the trematode's species identity were studied in cattle and sheep in the Republic of Ireland using passive veterinary surveillance (faecal examination and necropsy results; 2010-2013) and abattoir data. Based on faecal examination, the prevalence of rumen fluke was higher in cattle than in sheep. Rumen fluke prevalence in cattle and sheep fluctuated over the year and in most years (2011-2013), prevalence was higher in winter (December-February) than in summer (June-August).

The emergence of resistance to the benzimidazole anthlemintics in parasitic nematodes of livestock is characterised by multiple independent hard and soft selective sweeps.

Anthelmintic resistance is a major problem for the control of parasitic nematodes of livestock and of growing concern for human parasite control. However, there is little understanding of how resistance arises and spreads or of the "genetic signature" of selection for this group of important pathogens. We have investigated these questions in the system for which anthelmintic resistance is most advanced; benzimidazole resistance in the sheep parasites Haemonchus contortus and Teladorsagia circumcincta.

Identification of a sex-linked SNP marker in the salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) using RAD sequencing.

The salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer, 1837)) is a parasitic copepod that can, if untreated, cause considerable damage to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758) and incurs significant costs to the Atlantic salmon mariculture industry. Salmon lice are gonochoristic and normally show sex ratios close to 1:1. While this observation suggests that sex determination in salmon lice is genetic, with only minor environmental influences, the mechanism of sex determination in the salmon louse is unknown.

Salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) showing varying emamectin benzoate susceptibilities differ in neuronal acetylcholine receptor and GABA-gated chloride channel mRNA expression.

Background: Caligid copepods, also called sea lice, are fish ectoparasites, some species of which cause significant problems in the mariculture of salmon, where the annual cost of infection is in excess of €300 million globally. At present, caligid control on farms is mainly achieved using medicinal treatments. However, the continued use of a restricted number of medicine actives potentially favours the development of drug resistance.

A survey of the trichostrongylid nematode species present on UK sheep farms and associated anthelmintic control practices.

A survey of sheep farms from across the UK was conducted to establish information on farming practices, the trichostrongylid nematode species present and anthelmintic usage. Questionnaires and faecal samples were returned from 118 farms. First stage larvae (L(1)) were cultured from faecal samples and used for PCR analysis to determine the presence/absence of selected trichostrongylid species.

Gene expression changes in a P-glycoprotein (Tci-pgp-9) putatively associated with ivermectin resistance in Teladorsagia circumcincta.

Anthelmintic resistance in parasitic nematodes of small ruminants is widespread and, in some parts of the world, threatens the sustainability of sheep production. The genetic changes underlying resistance to anthelmintics, particularly ivermectin (IVM), remain to be determined. The majority of studies to date have investigated target site mutations; relatively little attention has been paid to the role of changes in gene expression.

Teladorsagia circumcincta: the transcriptomic response of a multi-drug-resistant isolate to ivermectin exposure in vitro.

The emergence and spread of anthelmintic resistance in parasitic nematodes is a serious threat to the sustainability of the livestock industry. Resistance has a genetic component but the underlying mechanisms and the means by which resistant parasites survive anthelmintic treatment are still poorly understood. Differential gene expression may be implicated, especially in multi-drug resistant parasites.

SAGE and the quantitative analysis of gene expression in parasites.

The nature of an organism is defined by the genes that it expresses. Genome- and expressed-sequence-tag (EST) sequencing projects are underway for many of the major parasites of humans and animals. These provide essential datasets that delineate the genes present in an organism and, in the case of ESTs, some quantitative information on gene expression.

The nature and prospects for gut membrane proteins as vaccine candidates for Haemonchus contortus and other ruminant trichostrongyloids.

Substantial progress has been made in the last decade in identifying several antigens from Haemonchus contortus which, in their native form, stimulate useful levels of protective immunity (70-95% reductions in faecal egg output) in the ovine host. Much work has focussed on proteins/protein complexes expressed on the surface of the worm gut which are exposed to the blood meal, and, hence, antibody ingested with it. The antigens generally, but not in all cases, show protease activity and antibody is thought to mediate protective immunity by blocking the activity of enzymes involved in digestion within the worm.