Predicting Visit Cost of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Using Electronic Healthcare Records With Transformer.

Background: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is growing increasingly prevalent in many countries as obesity rises. Sufficient, effective treatment of OSA entails high social and financial costs for healthcare.

Objective: For treatment purposes, predicting OSA patients' visit expenses for the coming year is crucial.

Test problem construction for single-objective bilevel optimization.

In this paper, we propose a procedure for designing controlled test problems for single-objective bilevel optimization. The construction procedure is flexible and allows its user to control the different complexities that are to be included in the test problems independently of each other. In addition to properties that control the difficulty in convergence, the procedure also allows the user to introduce difficulties caused by interaction of the two levels.