Optimization of controlled release nanoparticle formulation of verapamil hydrochloride using artificial neural networks with genetic algorithm and response surface methodology.

This study was performed to optimize the formulation of polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLN) for the delivery of an ionic water-soluble drug, verapamil hydrochloride (VRP) and to investigate the roles of formulation factors. Modeling and optimization were conducted based on a spherical central composite design. Three formulation factors, i.

The impact of reference pricing of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents on the use and costs of analgesic drugs.

Objective: To estimate the effect of reference pricing (RP) of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on drug subsidy program and beneficiary expenditures on analgesic drugs.

Data Sources/study Setting: Monthly claims data from Pharmacare, the public drug subsidy program for seniors in British Columbia, Canada, over the period of February 1993 to June 2001.

Study Design: RP limits drug plan reimbursement of interchangeable medicines to a reference price, which is typically equal to the price of the lowest cost interchangeable drug; any cost above that is borne by the patient.

Resistance to antibiotics: administrative response to the challenge.

The authors discuss antibiotic resistance within a conceptual framework that illustrates the dynamic relationships among antibiotic, patient, and population factors. The complexity of these interactions makes it unlikely that any single intervention or approach will adequately address the problem of increasing rates of antibiotic resistance. A case study focused on Streptococcus pneumoniae in the context of community-acquired pneumonia provides a detailed examination of the manner in which antibiotic use, expenditures, and microbial resistance are affected by an administrative reimbursement restriction implemented by a single government payer.

Impact of reference-based pricing for histamine-2 receptor antagonists and restricted access for proton pump inhibitors in British Columbia.

Background: Two programs to reduce expenditures for common gastrointestinal drugs were introduced simultaneously by British Columbia (BC) Pharmacare in 1995. Reference-based pricing restricted reimbursement for all histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs) to the cost of the least expensive H2RA available, generic cimetidine. Special authority restricted reimbursement for proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) to patients who met certain eligibility criteria.