Assessment of 2 Treatment Methods for Ulna Fractures With an Intact Radius in Raptors: Conservative Management and Surgical Fixation With a Type I External Skeletal Fixator Intramedullary Pin Tie-in.

Several methods have been reported for treating avian antebrachial fractures, yet the quantitative information regarding their success is limited. This retrospective study applied data from raptors admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center to provide metrics associated with the treatment of ulna fractures with an intact radius by either conservative management or a single surgical method: a type I external skeletal fixator tied in to an intramedullary pin (ESF IMP tie-in). Postfledging wild raptors with an ulna fracture admitted to The Raptor Center at the University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine (St Paul, MN, USA) between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2017, that survived for at least 7 days after admission were included in the study.

Distraction Osteogenesis in Two Wild Raptors.

Distraction osteogenesis was used in 2 wild raptor patients for the repair of tibiotarsal fractures. The first case was a hatching year female peregrine falcon () admitted with an open oblique right distal tibiotarsal fracture. The fracture was surgically managed with the external skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in technique (ESF-IM pin tie-in).

Patterns and trends in lead (Pb) concentrations in bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nestlings from the western Great Lakes region.

Most studies examining bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) exposure to lead (Pb) have focused on adults that ingested spent Pb ammunition during the fall hunting season, often at clinical or lethal levels. We sampled live bald eagle nestlings along waterbodies to quantify Pb concentrations in 3 national park units and 2 nearby study areas in the western Great Lakes region. We collected 367 bald eagle nestling feather samples over 8 years during spring 2006-2015 and 188 whole blood samples over 4 years during spring 2010-2015.

INFLUENCE OF SNOWFALL ON BLOOD LEAD LEVELS OF FREE-FLYING BALD EAGLES (HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS) IN THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI RIVER VALLEY.

Lead poisoning of scavenging raptors occurs primarily via consumption of game animal carcasses containing lead, which peaks during fall firearm hunting seasons. We hypothesized that snowfall would mitigate exposure by concealing carcasses. We categorized blood lead level (BLL) for a subsample of Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) from the Upper Mississippi River Valley and described BLL with respect to age, sex, and snowfall.

Correlation of brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging of spontaneously lead poisoned bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) with histological lesions: A pilot study.

Six bald eagles with severe, acute lead poisoning based on blood lead values were analyzed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the brain and histopathology. The aims of the study were to use MRI to locate brain lesions and correlate the changes in MRI signal with the histological character of the lesions at necropsy. All of the bald eagles presented with neurologic and non-neurologic signs suggestive of severe lead poisoning and had blood lead levels in excess of 1.

External skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in for the repair of tibiotarsal fractures in raptors: 37 cases (1995-2011).

Objective: To evaluate the outcome of the application of an external skeletal fixator intramedullary pin tie-in (TIF) to tibiotarsal fractures in raptors.

Design: Retrospective case series.

Animals: Thirty-four raptors with 37 tibiotarsal fractures.

Disease risk in a dynamic environment: the spread of tick-borne pathogens in Minnesota, USA.

As humans and climate change alter the landscape, novel disease risk scenarios emerge. Understanding the complexities of pathogen emergence and subsequent spread as shaped by landscape heterogeneity is crucial to understanding disease emergence, pinpointing high-risk areas, and mitigating emerging disease threats in a dynamic environment. Tick-borne diseases present an important public health concern and incidence of many of these diseases are increasing in the United States.

Clinical, pathological, and immunohistochemical findings in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) naturally infected with West Nile virus.

Fifteen bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and 3 golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) were diagnosed with West Nile disease based on 1) presence of lesions in brain, eyes, and heart, 2) viral antigen detection in brain, eyes, heart, kidney, and/or liver by immunohistochemical staining, 3) detection of viral RNA in tissue samples and/or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by polymerase chain reaction, and/or 4) detection of West Nile virus (WNV)-specific antibodies in CSF by serum neutralization assay. West Nile virus-associated gross lesions included cerebral pan-necrosis with hydrocephalus ex vacuo (7/15 bald eagles), fibrin exudation into the fundus in 1 golden eagle, retinal scarring in 1 bald eagle, and myocardial pallor and rounded heart apex in 4 bald eagles. Histologic lesions included lymphoplasmacytic encephalitis, most prominently in the cerebrum (17 eagles), lymphoplasmacytic pectenitis and choroiditis (15 and 8 eagles, respectively), and myocarditis (12 eagles).

Serologic evidence of exposure of raptors to influenza A virus.

Serum or plasma samples from raptors that prey or scavenge upon aquatic birds were tested by a commercially available blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the evidence of antibodies to influenza A virus. Samples were taken from birds (n = 616) admitted to two rehabilitation centers in the United States. In addition, samples from 472 migrating peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) trapped on autumnal and vernal migrations for banding purposes were also tested.

Improved method for the isolation and sub-typing of avian influenza viruses from oropharyngeal samples of ducks.

Waterfowl are the natural reservoirs of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), from which the virus can spread to other species including humans, poultry, and swine. For the surveillance of AIV in their natural reservoir, most laboratories initially screen the samples using real-time reverse-transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction because of its high speed and sensitivity. Thereafter, virus isolation is used to isolate viruses from positive samples.

Effect of West Nile virus DNA-plasmid vaccination on response to live virus challenge in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis).

Objective: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of an experimental adjuvanted DNA-plasmid vaccine against West Nile virus (WNV) in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis).

Animals: 19 permanently disabled but otherwise healthy red-tailed hawks of mixed ages and both sexes without detectable serum antibodies against WNV.

Procedures: Hawks were injected IM with an experimental WNV DNA-plasmid vaccine in an aluminum-phosphate adjuvant (n = 14) or with the adjuvant only (control group; 5).

Isolation of H5 avian influenza viruses from waterfowl in the upper Midwest region of the United States.

In recent years, the H5N1 subtype of avian influenza virus (AIV) has become an important zoonotic pathogen. The surveillance of AIV in its natural host, the waterfowl, is crucial to monitoring and controlling the disease in poultry and other species. In this study, we report on the isolation of H5 AIV from cloacal swabs of waterfowl captured in Minnesota and South Dakota.

Selective isolation of Avian influenza virus (AIV) from cloacal samples containing AIV and Newcastle disease virus.

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are important zoonotic pathogens whose natural reservoir is waterfowl. In addition to AIV, waterfowl are often coinfected with other viruses, such as the paramyxoviruses, of which Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is of particular importance because of the highly virulent nature of certain strains of this virus for domestic poultry. In routine surveillance of waterfowl for AIV, a number of cloacal samples were encountered that were positive for AIV by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), but did not yield AIV by inoculation in embryonated chicken eggs.

Isolation of Avian influenza virus from polymerase chain reaction-negative cloacal samples of waterfowl.

Avian influenza virus (AIV) is one of the most important zoonotic pathogens because of its potential to cause severe disease outbreaks in avian and human hosts. Virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs) remains a gold standard technique for AIV detection. However, some laboratories prefer molecular methods, such as real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), for initial sample screening because of their high throughput sample processing and rapid results.

Isolation and molecular characterization of Newcastle disease viruses from raptors.

The present study was undertaken to detect and characterize Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in raptors. Cloacal and oropharyngeal swab samples were collected from 60 casualty raptors during January to March 2009 in Minnesota. Inoculation of all these samples (n=120) in 9-day-old embryonated hens' eggs resulted in isolation of haemagglutinating viruses in three samples from two bald eagles and one great horned owl.

Isolation of mixed subtypes of influenza A virus from a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus).

From April 2007 to March 2008, cloacal swabs were obtained from 246 casualty raptors recovered by various wildlife rehabilitation centers in the United States. The swabs were placed in a virus transport medium and transported to the laboratory on ice packs. At the laboratory, the samples were pooled with each pool consisting of five samples.

Comparison of cloacal and oropharyngeal samples for the detection of avian influenza virus in wild birds.

This study was conducted to compare oropharyngeal (OP) and cloacal samples of wild birds (n = 137) for the detection and isolation of avian influenza virus (AIV). A total of 39 (28.5%) cloacal and 85 (62.

Mechanical evaluation of external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin tie-in configurations applied to cadaveral humeri from red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis).

Use of external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin (ESF-IM) tie-in fixators is an adjustable and effective method of fracture fixation in birds. The objective of this study was to determine the contribution of each of the following parameters to the compressive and torsional rigidity of an ESF-IM pin tie-in applied to avian bones with an osteotomy gap: (1) varying the fixation pin position in the proximal bone segment and (2) increasing the number of fixation pins in one or both bone segments. ESF-IM pin tie-in constructs were applied to humeri harvested from red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) (n=24) that had been euthanatized for clinical reasons.

Mechanical evaluation of various external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin tie-in configurations using a tubular plastic bone model.

Use of external skeletal fixator-intramedullary pin tie-in (ESF-IM pin tie-in) fixators is an adjustable and effective method of fracture fixation in birds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the elements of the ESF-IM tie-in configuration used in birds. Ten variations of constructs were applied to a plastic bone model with a standard gap.

Phylogenetic analysis of Newcastle disease viruses isolated from waterfowl in the upper midwest region of the United States.

Background: This study was conducted to characterize Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates obtained from waterfowl from the Upper Midwest region of the United States. A total of 43 NDVs were isolated by inoculation of cloacal samples in embryonated chicken eggs. These isolates were obtained from 24 mallards, seven American green-winged teals, six northern pintails, four blue-winged teals, and two wood ducks.

Management of a cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in an American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber).

A 32-year-old female American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) was presented with a squamous cell carcinoma of the middle digit of the right foot. No clinical, hematologic, or radiologic evidence of metastasis was present. Salvage amputation of the digit resulted in complete cure, whereas previous electrosurgery and radiation therapy were unsuccessful.

Raptor toxicology.

Birds of prey have demonstrated the negative impact that toxic agents can cause on animal populations and ecosystem dynamics. Lead, cholinesterase inhibitors (eg, organophosphates, carbamates), and anticoagulant rodenticides (eg, brodifacoum) are the most common toxic agents that currently affect the health of wild birds of prey in the United States. For raptors held in captivity, the list of toxic agents expands and includes toxic inhalants such as carbon monoxide and polytetrafluoroethylene.

Ophthalmologic and oculopathologic findings in red-tailed hawks and Cooper's hawks with naturally acquired West Nile virus infection.

Objective: To assess ophthalmologic features and ocular lesions in red-tailed hawks and Cooper's hawks naturally infected with West Nile virus (WNV).

Design: Original study.

Animals: 13 hawks.

Falcon adenovirus infection in breeding Taita falcons (Falco fasciinucha).

Four female and 3 male Taita falcons (Falco fasciinucha) out of a breeding colony of 14 Taita falcons (7 pairs) died during the breeding season after showing lethargy and anorexia for 1 to 2 days. All animals were submitted for necropsy. Gross lesions in the female falcons were characterized by anemia secondary to marked hemorrhage into the ovary and oviduct, serofibrinous effusion into the cardioabdominal cavity and serosal petechiae.