Emerging Strategies to Improve the Stability and Bioavailability of Insulin: An Update on Formulations and Delivery Approaches.

One of the primary goals of diabetes management is to maintain blood glucose levels within a normal range, and insulin plays a vital role in achieving this. All Type 1 DM patients and advanced Type 2 DM patients require insulin. Insulin is administered subcutaneously, which may cause patient discomfort from the use of needles.

Role of surface-exposed charged basic amino acids (Lys, Arg) and guanidination in insulin on the interaction and stability of insulin-insulin receptor complex.

Naturally occurring proteins are emerging as novel therapeutics in the protein-based biopharmaceutical industry for the treatment of diabetes and obesity. However, proteins are not suitable for oral delivery due to short half-life, reduced physical and chemical stability and low permeability across the membrane. Chemical modification has been identified as a formulation strategy to enhance the stability and bioavailability of protein drugs.