Evaluating student understanding of pharmacodynamics core concepts.

Pharmacodynamics is an essential subdiscipline of pharmacology that underpins safe and effective prescribing and therapeutic decision-making, as well as drug discovery and development. The exponential increase in the number of therapeutic drugs has prompted members of the pharmacology educator community to question existing pharmacology curricula focused on individual drugs and move toward a curriculum focused on conceptual understanding. A first step towards conceptual understanding is to establish what students currently know about pharmacodynamic core concepts.

Biomarkers.

Background: Biomarkers, such as blood p-tau181, p-tau217, and p-tau231, have been created and verified to mirror the pathophysiology of tau and amyloid-β (Aβ) in the brain . Sleep spindles are known to contribute to memory consolidation and generalization and may therefore be a promising biomarker in preclinical Alzheimer's Disease (AD) . The present study investigated the relationship between sleep spindles and p-tau levels in cognitively healthy older African Americans.

Biomarkers.

Background: African Americans are among the most vulnerable demographic groups to both sleep deficiencies and Alzheimer's disease (AD)3. ABCA7-80 (rs115550680) known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette member 7, plays a role in the transport of amyloid precursor protein, clearance of cellular Aβ, and lipid metabolism: three processes associated with late-onset AD2. Slow oscillations, which characterize non-REM sleep, are implicated in waste clearance and memory consolidation in the brain1.

Public Health.

Background: Advancing age is typically associated with a decline in memory capacity and increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, there is a subgroup of the older adult population defined as SuperAgers that presents excellent memory performance reflecting resilience to the typical and pathological pathways of aging . Atrophy in hippocampal subregions, key areas for memory formation, are early anatomical markers of preclinical AD.

Biomarkers.

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles which cause neurodegeneration and cognitive decline1. APOE-ε4 is identified as the first common genetic risk factor with high penetrance in the early onset of AD3. ABCA7 (rs115550680) (ABCA7-80) is associated with the development of late-onset AD among African Americans2.