In-depth health surveillance and clinical nutrition in farmed Atlantic salmon: a strategic attempt to detect and mitigate an HSMI outbreak.

Fish health personnel have limited tools in combatting viral diseases such as heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI) in open net-pen farmed Atlantic salmon. In this study, we aimed to predict HSMI by intensified health monitoring and apply clinical nutrition to mitigate the condition. We followed a commercial cohort (G1) of Atlantic salmon that was PRV-1 naïve when transferred to a sea cage at a location where HSMI outbreaks commonly occur.

Isolation and characterisation of two cDNAs encoding transglutaminase from Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua).

Two cDNAs encoding transglutaminase (TG) were identified in a subtractive cDNA library prepared from the head kidney of poly I:C stimulated Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Full-length TG-1 and TG-2 cDNA were cloned from the head kidney by a reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The deduced amino acid (aa) sequence for TG-1 was 695 aa with an estimated molecular mass of 78.

Genomic analysis of the host response to nervous necrosis virus in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) brain.

Genome sequencing combined with transcriptome profiling promotes exploration of defence against pathogens and discovery of immune genes. Based on sequences from the recently released genome of Atlantic cod, a genome-wide oligonucleotide microarray (ACIQ-1) was designed and used for analyses of gene expression in the brain during infection with nervous necrosis virus (NNV). A challenge experiment with NNV was performed with Atlantic cod juveniles and brain samples from virus infected and uninfected fish were used for microarray analysis.

Atlantic salmon type I IFN subtypes show differences in antiviral activity and cell-dependent expression: evidence for high IFNb/IFNc-producing cells in fish lymphoid tissues.

This work reveals distinct roles of the two-cysteine-containing type I IFNs, IFNa and IFNd, and the four-cysteine-containing IFNb and IFNc in antiviral immunity of Atlantic salmon. IFNa and IFNc showed similar antiviral activities and ability to induce antiviral genes, IFNb was less active, and IFNd showed no activity. Expression of IFNs was compared by treatment of cells or fish with the dsRNA polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)], which induces IFNs via the viral RNA receptors MDA5 and TLR3/TLR22 and with the imidazoquinoline R848, which induces IFNs via TLR7.

Regulation and function of interferon regulatory factors of Atlantic salmon.

Transcription factors of the interferon regulatory factor (IRF) family are major regulators of the early immune responses against viral infections. In particular, IRF1, IRF2, IRF3 and IRF7 of mammals are known to regulate the expression of type I interferons (IFNs), which constitute the obligate cytokines for antiviral defense. We therefore cloned the coding sequence of Atlantic salmon (As) IRF1, IRF2, IRF3 and IRF7B.

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) possesses three homologues of ISG15 with different expression kinetics and conjugation properties.

Two new interferon stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) family members were identified in a subtractive cDNA library constructed from a mixture of head kidney and spleen of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) stimulated with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C). Two full-length Atlantic cod (Ac) ISG15-2 and AcISG15-3 cDNAs were cloned with rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The cDNA sequence of AcISG15-2 encodes a 16.

Structural and functional studies of an IRF-7-like gene from Atlantic salmon.

Interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF-7) plays a crucial role in virus-induced activation of interferon-alpha/beta transcription in mammals. This work describes a structural and functional homologue of mammalian IRF-7 from Atlantic salmon. The cloned gene encodes a putative protein of 415 amino acids (aa), which groups with mammalian IRF-7 and other fish IRF-7-like proteins in a phylogenetic analysis of vertebrate IRFs.

Induction of interferon system genes in Atlantic salmon by the imidazoquinoline S-27609, a ligand for Toll-like receptor 7.

Imidazoquinolines represented by imiquimod and its derivative S-27609, have previously been shown to have potent antiviral and antitumor activity in several mammalian models. Much of the antiviral properties of imidazoquinolines have been ascribed to induction of IFN-alpha in peripheral blood mononuclear cells most notably plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 has been identified as the receptor for imiquimod and S-27609 in mammals.

Molecular and functional characterization of two infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) proteins with type I interferon antagonizing activity.

In this study we characterize two proteins encoded by the two smallest genomic segments of the piscine orthomyxovirus infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV). Both proteins, encoded by the un-spliced ORF from genomic segment 7 (s7ORF1) and the larger ORF from segment 8 (s8ORF2), are involved in modulation of the type I interferon (IFN) response. The data suggests that the s7ORF1 protein is collinearly encoded, non-structural, contains no nuclear localisation signals, localises mainly to the cytoplasmic perinuclear area and does not bind single- or double-stranded RNA.

The Atlantic salmon Z-DNA binding protein kinase phosphorylates translation initiation factor 2 alpha and constitutes a unique orthologue to the mammalian dsRNA-activated protein kinase R.

The translation initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2alpha)-kinase, dsRNA-activated protein kinase (PKR), constitutes one of the major antiviral proteins activated by viral infection of vertebrates. PKR is activated by viral double-stranded RNA and subsequently phosphorylates the alpha-subunit of translation initiation factor eIF2. This results in overall down regulation of protein synthesis in the cell and inhibition of viral replication.

Infectious salmon anemia virus is a powerful inducer of key genes of the type I interferon system of Atlantic salmon, but is not inhibited by interferon.

Infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV) is an aquatic orthomyxovirus causing disease and high mortality in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). The virus is thus apparently able to initiate replication without being hampered by the host's immune system. In this work we have studied the role of the type I interferon (IFN) system of Atlantic salmon in protection against ISAV.

Promoters of type I interferon genes from Atlantic salmon contain two main regulatory regions.

Recognition of viral nucleic acids by vertebrate host cells results in the synthesis and secretion of type I interferons (IFN-alpha/beta), which induce an antiviral state in neighboring cells. We have cloned the genes and promoters of two type I IFNs from Atlantic salmon. Both genes have the potential to encode IFN transcripts with either a short or a long 5'-untranslated region, apparently controlled by two distinct promoter regions, PR-I and PR-II, respectively.