Working memory limitations constrain visual episodic long-term memory at both specific and gist levels of representation.

Limitations in one's capacity to encode information in working memory (WM) constrain later access to that information in long-term memory (LTM). The present study examined whether these WM constraints on episodic LTM are limited to specific representations of past episodes or also extend to gist representations. Across three experiments, young adult participants (n = 40 per experiment) studied objects in set sizes of two or six items, either sequentially (Experiments 1a and 1b) or simultaneously (Experiment 2).

The time course of encoding specific and gist episodic memory representations among young and older adults.

How rapidly can we encode the specifics versus the gist of episodic memories? Competing theories have opposing answers, but empirical tests are based primarily on tasks of item memory. Few studies have addressed this question with tasks measuring the binding of event components (e.g.

A lifespan study of the confidence-accuracy relation in working memory and episodic long-term memory.

The relation between an individual's memory accuracy and reported confidence in their memories can indicate self-awareness of memory strengths and weaknesses. We provide a lifespan perspective on this confidence-accuracy relation, based on two previously published experiments with 320 participants, including children aged 6-13, young adults aged 18-27, and older adults aged 65-77, across tests of working memory (WM) and long-term memory (LTM). Participants studied visual items in arrays of varying set sizes and completed item recognition tests featuring 6-point confidence ratings either immediately after studying each array (WM tests) or following a long period of study events (LTM tests).

Sex Differences and Similarities in Relations Between Mathematics Achievement, Attitudes, and Anxiety: A Seventh-to-Ninth Grade Longitudinal Study.

There are consistent correlations between mathematics achievement, attitudes, and anxiety, but the longitudinal relations among these constructs are not well understood nor are sex differences in these relations. To address this gap, mathematics achievement, attitudes, and anxiety were longitudinally assessed for 342 (169 boys) adolescents from 7th to 9th grade, inclusive, and Latent Growth Curve Models were used to assess the relations among these traits and developmental change in them. Spatial abilities (7th, 8th grade) and trait anxiety (8th, 9th grade) were also assessed and used for control for sex differences in these traits.

The Relation Between Attention and Memory.

The relation between attention and memory has long been deemed important for understanding cognition, and it was heavily researched even in the first experimental psychology laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt and his colleagues. Since then, the importance of the relation between attention and memory has been explored in myriad subdisciplines of psychology, and we incorporate a wide range of these diverse fields. Here, we examine some of the practical consequences of this relation and summarize work with various methodologies relating attention to memory in the fields of working memory, long-term memory, individual differences, life-span development, typical brain function, and neuropsychological conditions.

Differential attentional costs of encoding specific and gist episodic memory representations.

Theories of episodic memory posit that more attentional resources are needed for encoding specific compared to gist representations. This position has been challenged by recent findings of similar divided attention (DA) at encoding costs on both specific and gist representations. However, the disrupting effects of DA on specific representations may emerge under less difficult DA conditions than those under which effects on gist representations emerge.

Forgetting of specific and gist visual associative episodic memory representations across time.

Associative binding between components of an episode is vulnerable to forgetting across time. We investigated whether these forgetting effects on inter-item associative memory occur only at specific or also at gist levels of representation. In two experiments, young adult participants (n = 90, and 86, respectively) encoded face-scene pairs and were then tested either immediately after encoding or following a 24-hour delay.

Adult age-related changes in the specificity of episodic memory representations: A review and theoretical framework.

We provide a comprehensive review describing research on the qualitative representational nature of older adults' episodic memories. Our review considers several broad theoretical frameworks and decades of research converging on a universal principle of adult aging: Episodic memory in older adulthood is characterized as being less specific in nature than in younger adulthood. Going beyond earlier specific reviews on related topics in the false memory, neuroscience, and reading comprehension literatures, our review synthesizes findings from these fields with more recent research from the precision literature, along with several new studies on age differences in the specificity of associative aspects of episodic memory, where age deficits have long been reported.

The proportion of working memory items recoverable from long-term memory remains fixed despite adult aging.

We explored whether long-term memory (LTM) retrieval is constrained by working memory (WM) limitations, in 80 younger and 80 older adults. Participants performed a WM task with images of unique everyday items, presented at varying set sizes. Subsequently, we tested participants' LTM for items from the WM task and examined the ratio of LTM/WM retention.

The formation of specific and gist associative episodic memory representations during encoding: Effects of rate of presentation.

Assessing the time course under which underlying memory representations can be formed is an important question for understanding memory. Several studies assessing item memory have shown that gist representations of items are laid out more rapidly than verbatim representations. However, for associations among items/components, which form the core of episodic memory, it is unclear whether gist representations form more quickly than, or at least in parallel with, verbatim representations, as fuzzy-trace theory predicts, or whether gist is extracted more slowly from inferring the meaning of verbatim representations, as in gist macroprocessor theories.

Adult age differences in specific and gist associative episodic memory across short- and long-term retention intervals.

Age-related deficits in associative episodic memory have been widely reported, but recent research suggests that some of these deficits occur for highly specific but not gist representations. It remains undetermined whether older adults' deficits in specific associative episodic memory, observed in long-term memory, are also present in short-term memory. We used a continuous associative recognition task to address this question.

Online experimentation and sampling in cognitive aging research.

Online data collection methods have become increasingly popular in many domains of psychology, but their use in cognitive aging studies remains relatively limited. Is it time for cognitive aging researchers to embrace these methods? Here, we weigh potential advantages and disadvantages of conducting online studies with young and older adults, relative to lab-based studies, with a particular focus on the study of human memory and aging. With online studies, it may be possible to assess whether age-related effects on cognition obtained in the laboratory generalize to other situations with different environmental or subject characteristics.

A tutorial on cognitive modeling for cognitive aging research.

Cognitive aging researchers are interested in understanding how cognitive processes change in old age, but the relationship between hypothetical latent cognitive processes and observed behavior is often complex and not fully accounted for in standard analyses (e.g., Analysis of variance [ANOVA]).

Exploring the use of phonological and semantic representations in working memory.

In the traditional conception of working memory for word lists, phonological codes are used primarily, and semantic codes are often discarded or ignored. Yet, other evidence indicates an important role for semantic codes. We carried out a preplanned set of four experiments to determine whether phonological and semantic codes are used similarly or differently.

Levels of specificity in episodic memory: Insights from response accuracy and subjective confidence ratings in older adults and in younger adults under full or divided attention.

We propose that the specificity with which associations in episodic memory can be remembered varies on a continuum. Older adults have been shown to forget highly specific information (Greene & Naveh-Benjamin, 2020b), and in Experiment 1, we provide further evidence that older adults' deficits in associative memory scale with the amount of specificity that needs to be retrieved. In Experiment 2, we address whether depleted attentional resources, simulated in young adults under divided attention at encoding, could account for older adults' associative memory specificity deficits.

The effects of divided attention at encoding and at retrieval on multidimensional source memory.

Dividing attention (DA) between a memory task and a secondary task results in deficits in memory performance across a wide array of memory tasks, but these effects are larger when DA occurs at encoding than at retrieval. Although some research suggests the effects of DA are equal for item and associative memory, thereby suggesting that DA disrupts all components of an episode to the same extent, there have been relatively few studies directly examining the effects of DA on multiple features of the same episode. In addition, no studies have examined how DA may affect the stochastic dependency between multiple source dimensions of a given episode, which is central to theories of source memory, and episodic memory in general.

The effects of divided attention at encoding on specific and gist-based associative episodic memory.

Effects of divided attention (DA) during encoding on later memory performance are widely documented. However, the precise nature of these effects on underlying memory representations and subsequent retrieval processes has not been thoroughly investigated. Here, we examined whether DA at encoding would disrupt young adults' ability to remember associations in episodic memory at highly specific levels of representation (i.

Adult age differences in working memory capacity: Spared central storage but deficits in ability to maximize peripheral storage.

For the first time, we quantify capacities of working memory in young and older adults in a dual-task situation, addressing whether older adults have diminished central or peripheral capacity in working memory. Across 2 experiments, 63 young and 63 old adult participants studied visual arrays of colored squares and sequences of unfamiliar tones in quick succession and were instructed to attend to one or both modalities. Memory was assessed with a single-probe change-detection task.

A Specificity Principle of Memory: Evidence From Aging and Associative Memory.

The ability to remember associations among components of an event, which is central to episodic memory, declines with normal aging. In accord with the specificity principle of memory, these declines may occur because associative memory requires retrieval of specific information. Guided by this principle, we endeavored to determine whether ubiquitous age-related deficits in associative memory are restricted to specific representations or extend to the gist of associations.

Foundations of Arrogance: A Broad Survey and Framework for Research.

We consider the topic of from a cross-disciplinary viewpoint. To stimulate further research, we suggest three types of arrogance (individual, comparative, and antagonistic) and six components contributing to them, each logically related to the next. The components progress from imperfect knowledge and abilities to an unrealistic assessment of them, an unwarranted attitude of superiority over other people, and related derisive behavior.

Age-related differences in recall and recognition: a meta-analysis.

Relative to younger adults, older adults tend to perform more poorly on tests of both free recall and item recognition memory. The age difference in performance is typically larger for recall tasks relative to those involving recognition. However, there have been reports of comparable age-related differences in free recall and item recognition performance.

Basic need satisfaction in the parental relationship offsets millennials' worries about the transition to college.

Students' worries about transitioning to college are correlated with long-term reduced psychological well-being, so we investigated how psychological need satisfaction might mitigate millennials' worries about college. As parents can support or undermine their children's basic needs, we also examined the influence of autonomy-supportive and helicopter parenting during the transition. Additionally, we compared these outcomes between first- and continuing-generation students.

A Diary Study of Basic Psychological Needs and Daily Headache Experience.

Objective: A diary study was conducted to investigate the relationships between headache activity and basic psychological needs satisfaction.

Methods: One hundred sixteen young adults (M age = 19.17 (SD = 2.

Animal-eyeball vs. road-sign retroreflectors.

The retroreflective characteristics of ex-vitro cow and deer eyeballs were compared to those of man-made materials used in road signs and bicycle-style reflectors. Reflected intensities were measured using a goniometer that consists of a green He-Ne laser as the light source, and a photomultiplier tube as the detector. It was found that the best quality road-sign reflector, made from a 200-micron-scale, close-packed array of corner cubes, is approximately six times more efficient than a cow eyeball at returning light in the direction of the incoming beam.