Polish Scientists in Fish Immunology: A Short History.

This review describes the role played by Polish scientists in the field of fish immunology and vaccination starting around 1900. In the early days, most publications were dealing with a description of relevant cells and organs in fish. Functional studies (phagocytosis, antibody response) came later starting in the late 1930s.

A history of fish vaccination: science-based disease prevention in aquaculture.

Disease prevention and control are crucial in order to maintain a sustainable aquaculture, both economically and environmentally. Prophylactic measures based on stimulation of the immune system of the fish have been an effective measure for achieving this goal. Immunoprophylaxis has become an important part in the successful development of the fish-farming industry.

A short history of research on immunity to infectious diseases in fish.

This review describes the history of research on immunity to infectious diseases of fish in the period between 1965 and today. Special attention is paid to those studies, which are dealing with the interaction between immune system and invading pathogens in bony fish. Moreover, additional biographic information will be provided of people involved.

A history of fish immunology and vaccination I. The early days.

This historic review describes the people that were involved in studying some aspect of fish immunology and vaccination from as early as 1854. Between 1850 and 1940, most scientists were looking at fish from the angle of comparative anatomy, embryology, physiology, taxonomy and fish diseases. Most publications from this early period are describing the morphology of blood cells and hemopoietic or lymphoid organs.

The ontogeny of mucosal immune cells in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).

The ontogeny of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) immune cells was studied in mucosal organs (intestine, gills and skin) using the monoclonal antibodies WCL38 (intraepithelial lymphocytes), WCL15 (monocytes/macrophages) and WCI12 (B cells). In addition, recombination activating gene 1 expression was examined in the intestine with real time quantitative PCR and in situ hybridization to investigate extrathymic generation of lymphocytes.

Multiple acute temperature stress affects leucocyte populations and antibody responses in common carp, Cyprinus carpio L.

Stress is a potential factor causing increased susceptibility of fish to pathogens. In this study, stress-induced immunological changes that may contribute to a decreased immune status were investigated. A 3 h drop in ambient water temperature of 9 degrees C was used as a relative mild and acute stress model for carp.

Different capacities of carp leukocytes to encounter nitric oxide-mediated stress: a role for the intracellular reduced glutathione pool.

Carp head kidney (HK) phagocytes can be stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to produce nitric oxide (NO). High production of NO can suppress the carp immune system. Carp peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) are highly susceptible but HK phagocytes are relatively resistant to the immunosuppressive effects of NO.

Daily handling stress reduces resistance of carp to Trypanoplasma borreli: in vitro modulatory effects of cortisol on leukocyte function and apoptosis.

Carp subjected to daily handling stress were much more susceptible to Trypanoplasma borreli infection than control fish. In a search for the cellular mechanisms involved, it was observed that cortisol suppressed T. borreli-induced expression of interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, serum amyloid A and inducible nitric oxide synthase.

Molecular and functional characterization of carp TNF: a link between TNF polymorphism and trypanotolerance?

Two carp tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) genes have been cloned and sequenced. Both TNF1 and TNF2 sequences have several polymorphisms in the 3' UTR and TNF2 has a polymorphism in the coding sequence. Lipopolysaccharide and the protozoan blood flagellate Trypanoplasma borreli induced expression of TNFalpha in carp head kidney phagocytes when added in vitro.

The roles of haemocytes and the lymphoid organ in the clearance of injected Vibrio bacteria in Penaeus monodon shrimp.

In order to study the reaction of Penaeus monodon haemocytes, live Vibrio anguillarum bacteria were injected and the shrimp were periodically sampled. Immuno-double staining analysis with specific antisera against the haemocyte granules and bacteria showed that large numbers of haemocytes encapsulated the bacteria at the site of injection. A rapid decrease of live circulating bacteria was detected in the haemolymph.

Neuroendocrine-immune interactions in fish: a role for interleukin-1.

Bi-directional communication between the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis and the sympathetic nervous system with the immune system is crucial to ensure homeostasis. Shared use of ligands and especially receptors forms a key component of this bi-directional interaction. Glucocorticoids (GC), the major end products of the HPA-axis differentially modulate immune function.

Immune modulation by fish kinetoplastid parasites: a role for nitric oxide.

Trypanoplasma borreli and Trypanosoma carassii are kinetoplastid parasites infecting cyprinid fish. We investigated the role of nitric oxide (NO) in immune modulation during T. borreli and T.

The gill is a major organ for antibody secreting cell production following direct immersion of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.) in a Photobacterium damselae ssp. piscicida bacterin: an ontogenetic study.

Extremely high numbers of antibody secreting cells (ASC) were observed in the gills of sea bass fry immunised at three different age/sizes (initial weight of 0.1, 2 and 5 g) by direct immersion in a Photobacterium damselae spp. piscicida bacterin.

Molecular and functional characterization of a fish inducible-type nitric oxide synthase.

Using an oligonucleotide primer based on a partial goldfish inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) sequence, a complete carp iNOS cDNA was isolated from an activated carp phagocyte cDNA library. Nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequence analysis indicate that carp iNOS encodes a 1,127-amino acid protein with 57% sequence identity to human iNOS. Like mammalian NOSs, carp iNOS protein contains putative binding sites for heme, tetrahydrobiopterin, calmodulin, flavine mononucleotide, flavine adenine dinucleotide, and NADPH.

Ontogeny of the thymus in a teleost fish, Cyprinus carpio L.: developing thymocytes in the epithelial microenvironment.

A monoclonal antibody, WCL9, specific for membrane molecules of a thymocyte subpopulation was used to detect these cells in situ during the ontogeny of thymus. Cryo-sections revealed WCL9+ cells in the rudiment of the thymus (day 4 post fertilization); thereafter, the positive cells were observed exclusively in the cortex from the first appearance of thymic regionalization (week 4 post fertilization) until adult age. Whole-mount immunostaining of the thymus with WCL9 revealed the three-dimensional structure of the cortex by specific staining.

Monitoring and modelling of exposure to ethanol in hairdressing salons.

Personal exposure to solvents was studied among hairdressers in 28 salons in two regions during two seasons in The Netherlands. Ethanol was used as a marker for solvent exposure. Auxiliary data, such as salon and work characteristics, meteorological conditions and information on the presence of control measures, were collected during the measurements.

Immune responses after injection vaccination of fish.

During the last 20 years considerable progress has been made in describing and understanding the immune system of fish. Fish are the phylogenetically oldest vertebrate group with an immune system showing clear similarities to the defence systems of mammals and birds. Both innate immunity (non-specific responses) and acquired immunity (specific responses) are important for the defence against invading pathogens.

Immunogenetics of disease resistance in fish: a comparative approach.

The study of the genetic regulation of infectious disease resistance depends on the availability of inbred lines or selection lines of the species under investigation. The small numbers of such lines of fish has limited the strategy in teleosts to studies of associations between disease and immune/health traits. Attempts to correlate genetic differences in immune responsiveness with survival after experimental challenge with pathogenic bacteria have failed to define immune parameters that can substantially aid selection for genetic resistance to infectious diseases.

Characterization of isogenic carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) lines with a genetically determined high or low antibody production.

Antibody production to dinitrophenyl-keyhole limpet haemocyanin (DNP-KLH) served as the immune parameter to divergently select carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) to produce high- and low-responder F1 hybrid lines. Antibody production to trinitrophenyl-lipopolysaccharide (TNP-LPS) and to DNP-KLH were similar in magnitude.

Investigations into the ubiquitous nature of high or low immune responsiveness after divergent selection for antibody production in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).

This paper reports on the selection of individual carp with a high or low antibody response, in combination with reproduction by gynogenesis, in order to develop well-characterised inbred carp lines consisting of practically unlimited numbers of carp with the same genotype. Two homozygous progenies, previously characterised as having a high or low immune response to dinitrophenyl keyhole limpet haemocyanin (DNP-KLH), were immunised with either a T-dependent (DNP-human serum albumin (DNP-HSA)) or T-independent (trinitrophenyl lipopolysaccharide (TNP-LPS)) hapten-carrier complex. In comparison with the antibody response after DNP-KLH immunisation, the response to DNP-HSA was observed to be highly variable and did not differ between the divergently selected progenies.

Genetic variation in susceptibility to Trypanoplasma borreli infection in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).

Gynogenetic reproduction of homozygous females, or crossbreeding two homozygous animals, results in fish lines without genetic variation. Hybrid crosses are expected to express a more stable development than homozygous lines, the latter may have an important value for gaining insight into genetic components of host resistance to parasite infection. We examined the antibody response of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.

Divergent selection for antibody production in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) using gynogenesis.

A base population (n = 101) of carp, consisting of a single hybrid cross, was immunized with the hapten-carrier complex DNP-KLH, to perform a divergent selection for antibody response. Measurement of the DNP-specific antibody response at 12 and 21 days postimmunization, allowed the classification of a low number of individual carp as early/high (10%) or late/low (13%) responders. Three individuals defined as early/high and three defined as late/low responding, were gynogenetically reproduced to obtain corresponding homozygous progenies within one generation only.

Fish as biomarkers in immunotoxicology.

This paper presents an overview on the state of the art in the development and application of biomarkers for immunotoxicology in fish. There are several reasons for developing this field: many fish diseases are related to environmental quality, various environmental pollutants have immunotoxic potential and many fish diseases have an immunological component. As in immunotoxicology in general, this aspect, in fish, has received ample attention in the recent past.

Estimation of the genetic variation in complement activity of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).

The complement status of hybrid, laboratory raised carp was determined by an in vitro approach of the alternate complement activity (ACH50) and total haemolytic activity (CH50), and by measurement of serum C3 levels. The lysis of target sheep red blood cells (RBC) in the haemolytic assay for CH50 activity depended, amongst others, on the haemolysin concentration in the assay. Rocket electrophoresis showed a mean serum C3 concentration of 0.

Effects of inoculum route and dose on the immune response of common carp, Cyprinus carpio to the blood parasite, Trypanoplasma borreli.

Carp were inoculated intramuscularly (im) or intraperitoneally (ip) with different doses of live Trypanoplasma borreli. Prepatent period was shortened by using the im route and by increasing the dose. Haematocrit was reduced following im inoculation with 9.