Reprogramming the genome of M13 bacteriophage for all-in-one personalized cancer vaccine.

Peptide-based vaccines face limitations in immunogenicity and stability, and challenges in co-delivering antigens and adjuvants effectively. Virus-based nanoparticles, particularly M13 bacteriophage, present a promising solution due to their genetic modifiability, intrinsic adjuvanticity, and efficient antigen presentation capabilities. Here we developed a programmable M13 phage-based personalized cancer vaccine enabling single-step antigen-adjuvant assembly.