Integrative pharmacology and drug discovery--is the tide finally turning?

In vivo animal experiments are essential (and a regulatory requirement) to demonstrate the potential efficacy, safety and pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic profile of candidate drugs. However, the number of pharmacologists (and other bioscientists) with integrative (in vivo) pharmacology skills has been in decline for a number of years, as have the opportunities for students to learn such skills. This article reviews some recent initiatives that are underway to rebuild this essential skills base in the United Kingdom and the United States.