Gender and ethnic disparities in students' perceptions of how different groups of persons suspected of possessing and/or selling illegal drugs are treated in the criminal justice system.

Ethnic minorities and individuals of low socioeconomics status are disproportionately more likely to be detained, arrested, and convicted and receive longer sentences for drug offenses. This article explores gender and ethnic differentials among college students' perceptions on the criminal justice treatment of different gender, ethnic, and income groups applied to alleged drug offenders. It uses survey data provided by students at a large public university in South Florida.

Nature and Composition of Earnings Reported by Health Economists and Related Professionals: Gender, Education, and job Characteristics Matter.

Background: Despite the fast growth of the workforce comprising health economics (HE), outcomes research (OR), and market access (MA) professionals, little is known about their earnings determination. Only three studies have examined their earnings and none has considered the number of hours worked, traditionally a critical component of income determination models.

Objectives: (i) Estimate an indicator of annual earnings of HE/OR/MA professionals, comparing male versus female and U.

Gender and Pharmacists' Career Satisfaction in the United States.

Job satisfaction reflects pharmacists' evaluation of their current work experiences, while career satisfaction is an evaluation of how satisfied pharmacists are with their profession across various jobs. The objectives of this article were to measure career satisfaction and specific facets of current-job satisfaction of U.S.

Disparities in the Wage-and-Salary Earnings, Determinants, and Distribution of Health Economics, Outcomes Research, and Market Access Professionals: An Exploratory Study.

Objective: The aim was to estimate the wage-and-salary earnings of a sample of health economics, outcomes research, and market access (HE/OR/MA) professionals; compare male versus female and US versus non-US earnings; assess the magnitude of the effect of several human-capital and job-related covariates on the determination of earnings; and examine inequality in the distribution of earnings.

Methods: The study used self-reported survey data collected in 2017 from a subset of HE/OR/MA professionals in the HealthEconomics.com global subscriber list.

A Theoretical Framework for Estimating the Rate of Return to a Pharmacy Education Anywhere.

Undertaking a pharmacy education is an investment in human capital. Candidates trade off present versus future costs and benefits. They make this investment with the expectation of earning enough income throughout their worklives to make their undertaking financially worthwhile.

The rate of return to a pharmacy education investment in the U.S.

Background: Potential pharmacy students need a financial frame of reference to compare alternative fields of study or even determine if studying is financially worthwhile.

Objective: Estimate the rate of return to a pharmacy education investment in the U.S.

Pockets of Inequality in the Distribution of U.S. Pharmacists' Wages and Salaries: A Gender Comparison.

Background: The literature contains conflicting arguments regarding inequalities in the distribution of U.S. pharmacists' wages and salaries and the existence of a gender earnings gap.

A Probe into the Wages and Salaries of Health Economics, Outcomes Research, and Market Access Professionals.

Objective: To estimate the central tendency and spread of health economics, outcomes research, and market access (HE/OR/MA) professionals' wage-and-salary earnings; compare male versus female and US versus non-US earnings levels; and examine inequality in their distribution.

Methods: Self-reported survey data were collected in 2015 from HE/OR/MA professionals in the HealthEconomics.com global subscriber list.

Gender and Age Variations in Pharmacists' Job Satisfaction in the United States.

While several studies have attested the presence of systematic gender and age variations in pharmacists' satisfaction with their jobs, only a few of them have considered both classifications simultaneously. None have done so while systematically examining multiple facets of practitioners' work. This article estimated U.

Gender, age, and pharmacists' job satisfaction.

A comprehensive literature review was conducted on the concept of job satisfaction in the pharmacist workforce field and the facets it comprises, as well as its measurement, aiming to (i) review the nature, mechanisms, and importance of job satisfaction in the context of the pharmacist workforce, (ii) survey some of the most salient facets that configure job satisfaction, and (iii) discuss validity and measurement issues pertaining to it. Although female pharmacists generally hold less appealing jobs, earn lower wages and salaries, and are promoted less frequently than their male counterparts, they report higher levels of job satisfaction. Age has a U-shape effect on job satisfaction, with middle-age pharmacists less satisfied than both younger and older practitioners.

Gender differences in the measurement of pharmacists' job satisfaction.

Background: Men and women choose different levels of commitment in their careers and at home. Compared to men, women value the significance of tasks performed and social relations more and earnings less. The objective of this study was to explore whether male and female pharmacists show the same levels of satisfaction overall and with key facets of their job, whether overall satisfaction is associated with satisfaction with 12 key facets of pharmacists' jobs, and whether this association is similar for men and women.

A theoretical framework for the interpretation of pharmacist workforce studies throughout the world: The labor supply curve.

Despite geographic, financial, and cultural diversity, publications dealing with the pharmacist workforce throughout the world share common concerns and focus on similar topics. Their findings are presented in the literature in a seemingly unrelated way even though they are connected to one another as parts of a comprehensive theoretical structure. The purpose of this paper is to develop a theoretical model that relates some of the most salient topics addressed in the international literature on pharmacist workforce.

Response rate, response time, and economic costs of survey research: A randomized trial of practicing pharmacists.

Background: There is a gap between increasing demands from pharmacy journals, publishers, and reviewers for high survey response rates and the actual responses often obtained in the field by survey researchers. Presumably demands have been set high because response rates, times, and costs affect the validity and reliability of survey results.

Objective: Explore the extent to which survey response rates, average response times, and economic costs are affected by conditions under which pharmacist workforce surveys are administered.

Pharmacists' wages and salaries: The part-time versus full-time dichotomy.

Background: Recent years have seen significant growth in part-time work among pharmacy personnel. If preferences and outlooks of part-time and full-time workers differ, job-related incentives may not have the same effect on both groups; different management practices may be necessary to cope with rapidly evolving workforces.

Objective: To compare wage-and-salary responses to the number of hours worked, human-capital stock, and job-related preferences between full-time and part-time pharmacists.

Pharmacists' earnings: their level and distribution.

Background: From a methodological perspective, the central tendency and the spread of an earnings distribution are independent outcomes. Theoretically, they may be related to each other.

Objective: Explore the direction and magnitude of the effect of changes in the mean of pharmacists' wage-and-salary earnings on earnings inequality.

The life-cycle argument: age as a mediator of pharmacists' earnings.

Background: Age diversity poses challenges to pharmacy employers and managers. A life-cycle argument has been presented to explain pharmacists' age-related differences at work.

Objectives: Explore responses of pharmacists' wage-and-salary earnings in three age groups (younger than 40, 40-54 years, and 55 years plus) to labor input and human-capital variables.

Associations of gender and age groups on the knowledge and use of drug information resources by American pharmacists.

Objective: To explore knowledge and use of drug information resources by pharmacists and identify patterns influenced by gender and age-group classification.

Methods: A survey questionnaire was mailed nationwide to 1,000 practitioners working in community (n = 500) and hospital (n = 500) settings who answer drug information questions as part of their expected job responsibilities. Responses pertaining to drug information resource use and knowledge of different types of drug-related queries, resource media preferences, and perceived adequacy of resources maintained in the pharmacy were analyzed by gender and age group.

Inequalities in the distribution of pharmacists' wage-and-salary earnings: indicators and their development.

Background: Disparities in wages and salaries can be viewed as the dispersion of a statistical distribution that responds to observed and unobserved characteristics, and reflects socioeconomic phenomena such as the interplay of supply and demand, availability of information, and efficiency of markets in their search for equilibrium.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to explore the nature of inequality in the distribution of pharmacists' wage-and-salary earnings and establish the extent to which inequality primarily occurred because of variation between/among groups or within groups of pharmacists in several classifications of human-capital and job-related preference variables.

Methods: Data were collected through the use of a survey questionnaire mailed to registered pharmacists in South Florida, USA.

Labor supply functions of working male and female pharmacists: In search of the backward bend.

Background: Previous research has shown that U.S. pharmacists experience negative elasticities along a backward-bending labor supply function.

The gender earnings gap among pharmacists.

Background: A gender earnings gap exists across professions. Compared with men, women earn consistently lower income levels. The determinants of wages and salaries should be explored to assess whether a gender earnings gap exists in the pharmacy profession.

Application of Rasch rating scale model to analysis of job satisfaction among practicing pharmacists.

Objective: To demonstrate the application of Rasch analysis in the study of job satisfaction among practicing pharmacists.

Design: Cross-sectional survey study.

Setting: Community independent, community chain, hospital, and other pharmacies in the United States in fall 2005.