Enjoying mathematics or feeling competent in mathematics? Reciprocal effects on mathematics achievement and perceived math effort expenditure.

Background: The multidimensionality of the academic self-concept in terms of domain specificity has been well established in previous studies, whereas its multidimensionality in terms of motivational functions (the so-called affect-competence separation) needs further examination.

Aim: This study aims at exploring differential effects of enjoyment and competence beliefs on two external validity criteria in the field of mathematics.

Sample: Data analysed in this study were part of a large-scale longitudinal research project.

Causal ordering of academic self-concept and achievement: effects of type of achievement measure.

Background: The relation between academic self-concept and achievement has been examined in a large number of studies. The majority of these studies have found evidence for a reciprocal effects model. However, there is an ongoing debate on how students' achievement should be measured and whether the type of achievement indicator (grades, tests, teacher ratings) affects the causal pattern found in these studies.