Higher-order discrimination learning by honeybees in a virtual environment.

Non-elemental learning constitutes a cognitive challenge because events to be learned are usually ambiguous in terms of reinforcement outcome, contrary to elemental learning, which relies on unambiguous associations. Negative patterning (NP) constitutes a paradigmatic case of non-elemental learning, as subjects have to learn that single elements are reinforced while their simultaneous presentation is not reinforced (A+, B+ vs. AB-).