Skull Ossification in the Andean Toad Rhinella spinulosa (Bufonidae) and the Genetic Model Organism Xenopus tropicalis (Pipidae) Reveals Heterochrony Phenomena and Frontoparietal Suture Modifications.

Anurans are famous for having evolved a highly simplified skull through bone loss and fusion events. Nevertheless, their skeleton displays a rich morphological diversity associated with adaptations to diverse lifestyles and ecological niches. Here, we report larval skull ossification in the Andean toad Rhinella spinulosa (Bufonidae), and compare it to the phylogenetically distant genetic model organism Xenopus tropicalis (Pipidae).

Understanding the Role of ATP Release through Connexins Hemichannels during Neurulation.

Neurulation is a crucial process in the formation of the central nervous system (CNS), which begins with the folding and fusion of the neural plate, leading to the generation of the neural tube and subsequent development of the brain and spinal cord. Environmental and genetic factors that interfere with the neurulation process promote neural tube defects (NTDs). Connexins (Cxs) are transmembrane proteins that form gap junctions (GJs) and hemichannels (HCs) in vertebrates, allowing cell-cell (GJ) or paracrine (HCs) communication through the release of ATP, glutamate, and NAD; regulating processes such as cell migration and synaptic transmission.

Gαi protein subunit: A step toward understanding its non-canonical mechanisms.

The heterotrimeric G protein family plays essential roles during a varied array of cellular events; thus, its deregulation can seriously alter signaling events and the overall state of the cell. Heterotrimeric G-proteins have three subunits (α, β, γ) and are subdivided into four families, Gαi, Gα12/13, Gαq, and Gαs. These proteins cycle between an inactive Gα-GDP state and active Gα-GTP state, triggered canonically by the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) and by other accessory proteins receptors independent also known as AGS (Activators of G-protein Signaling).

Altered Glutaminase 1 Activity During Neurulation and Its Potential Implications in Neural Tube Defects.

The neurulation process is regulated by a large amount of genetic and environmental factors that determine the establishment, folding, and fusion of the neural plate to form the neural tube, which develops into the main structure of the central nervous system. A recently described factor involved in this process is glutamate. Through NMDA ionotropic receptor, glutamate modifies intracellular Ca dynamics allowing the oriented cell migration and proliferation, essentials processes in neurulation.