Motor behavior induced by bergamot essential oil in experimental tasks is differentially modulated by pretreatment with metabotropic glutamate receptor 2/3 or 5 antagonists.

Bergamot essential oil shows anxiolytic-relaxant effects devoid of sedative action and motor impairment typical of benzodiazepines. Considering the potential for clinical of these effects, it is important to understand the underlying mechanisms of the phytocomplex. Modulation of glutamate group I and II metabotropic receptors is involved in stress and anxiety disorders, in cognition and emotions and increases locomotor activity and wakefulness.

Analgesic Characteristics of NanoBEO Released by an Airless Dispenser for the Control of Agitation in Severe Dementia.

Chronic pain is one of the most common causes of the need for clinical evaluation, acquiring more importance in the elderly with cognitive impairment. Reduced self-reporting capabilities cause unrelieved pain contributing to the development of agitation. Safe and effective pain treatment can afford the management of agitation without the serious increase in death risk associated with neuroleptics.

Translational Value of the Transdermal Administration of Bergamot Essential Oil and of Its Fractions.

The essential oil of bergamot (BEO) has consistently proven antinociceptive and antiallodynic properties. Accordingly, the analgesic efficacy of the decolored essential oil (DEC), with higher levels of limonene, and the deterpenated (DET) fraction, with higher levels of linalool and linalyl acetate, was investigated using a formalin test after inhalation. The present study was aimed at characterizing the effects of BEO, its components with the highest pharmacological activity (represented by linalool, limonene, and linalyl acetate), and its DEC and DET fractions on the formalin test after transdermal administration relevant to clinical translation through topical application.

Antispasmodic Effect of Bergamot Essential Oil on Rat Isolated Gut Tissues.

Preclinical data indicate that bergamot essential oil (BEO) can modulate the synaptic functions within the central nervous system (CNS). Particularly, several data shows that essential oil is endowed with reproducible analgesic and anxiolytic effects that may derived from the ability to modulate the excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in the CNS. Although there are differences in the functional complexity of the enteric nervous system (ENS), it is likely that the phytocomplex has biological properties in gut superimposable to those showed in the CNS.

Preclinical Characterization of Antinociceptive Effect of Bergamot Essential Oil and of Its Fractions for Rational Translation in Complementary Therapy.

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) is endowed with consistent and reproducible antinociceptive and anti-allodynic properties when administered via an inhalation route. However, the effects of its main constituents and of its decolored (DEC) and deterpenated (DET) fractions, which are enriched in limonene or in linalool and linalyl acetate, respectively, on spontaneous motor activity related to anxiety and on formalin-induced licking/biting biphasic behavior have never been investigated before. Therefore, the present research aims to characterize the role of BEO components on an experimental pain model that is relevant to clinical translation.

Exploitation of Thermal Sensitivity and Hyperalgesia in a Mouse Model of Dystonia.

Neuropathic pain is characterized by mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia to heat, and it affects some 20% of European population. Patients suffering from several neurologic diseases experience neuropathic pain, often finding no relief in therapy. Transgenic mice expressing the gene encoding the human mutant (hMT) or the human wild-type (hWT) torsin A represent a preclinical model of DYT1 dystonia which is the most common form of early-onset inherited dystonia.

Development and Translation of NanoBEO, a Nanotechnology-Based Delivery System of Bergamot Essential Oil Deprived of Furocumarins, in the Control of Agitation in Severe Dementia.

Dementia is one of the most common causes of disability worldwide characterized by memory loss, cognitive impairment, and behavioral and psychological symptoms (BPSD), including agitation. Treatment of the latter consists of the off-label use of harmful atypical antipsychotics, though a significant reduction is afforded by pain control. The use of an essential oil endowed with analgesic properties and devoid of toxicity would represent an important option for the management of agitation in dementia.

Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence.

The demand for essential oils (EOs) has been steadily growing over the years. This is mirrored by a substantial increase in research concerned with EOs also in the field of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. The purpose of this present systematic review and meta-analysis is to investigate the preclinical evidence in favor of the working hypothesis of the analgesic properties of EOs, elucidating whether there is a consistent rational basis for translation into clinical settings.

Effect of Gabapentin in a Neuropathic Pain Model in Mice Overexpressing Human Wild-Type or Human Mutated Torsin A.

Background: DYT1 dystonia is the most common form of early-onset inherited dystonia, which is caused by mutation of torsin A (TA) belonging to the "ATPases associated with a variety of cellular activities" (AAA + ATPase). Dystonia is often accompanied by pain, and neuropathic pain can be associated to peripherally induced movement disorder and dystonia. However, no evidence exists on the effect of gabapentin in mice subjected to neuropathic pain model overexpressing human normal or mutated TA.

Natural Products: Evidence for Neuroprotection to Be Exploited in Glaucoma.

Glaucoma, a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, is an optic neuropathy characterized by the progressive death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is recognized as the main risk factor. Despite effective IOP-lowering therapies, the disease progresses in a significant number of patients.

Impact of nutraceuticals on glaucoma: A systematic review.

Background: glaucoma is a remarkable social issue being the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. It is a progressive neuropathy characterized by the death of the retinal ganglion cells, of which the most important risk factor is represented by the increase of intraocular pressure (IOP). The role of nutraceutical supplementations with anti-oxidant activity has been extensively tested in preclinical models of glaucoma.

Pharmacokinetic Interactions between Herbal Medicines and Drugs: Their Mechanisms and Clinical Relevance.

The therapeutic efficacy of a drug or its unexpected unwanted side effects may depend on the concurrent use of a medicinal plant. In particular, constituents in the medicinal plant extracts may influence drug bioavailability, metabolism and half-life, leading to drug toxicity or failure to obtain a therapeutic response. This narrative review focuses on clinical studies improving knowledge on the ability of selected herbal medicines to influence the pharmacokinetics of co-administered drugs.

Effects of Aging on Formalin-Induced Pain Behavior and Analgesic Activity of Gabapentin in C57BL/6 Mice.

Improved living conditions have induced an increase of lifespan often accompanied by comorbidities, responsible for pain, and by cognitive impairment and dementia, impairing communication capabilities. In most cases, the elderly do not receive pain relief because of underdiagnosis and of aging-induced changes of systems affecting nociceptive response. Unrelieved pain is involved in the development of behavioral symptoms, as agitation, representing a difficult challenge in this fragile population.

Inhibition of Neuromuscular Contractions of Human and Rat Colon by Bergamot Essential Oil and Linalool: Evidence to Support a Therapeutic Action.

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) added to food and drink promotes a citrus flavour. Folklore suggests benefits on gastrointestinal functions but with little supporting evidence. BEO and major constituents (linalool, limonene, linalyl acetate) were therefore examined for any ability to influence neuromuscular contractions of human and rat colon.

Role of 5-HT1A Receptor in the Anxiolytic-Relaxant Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil in Rodent.

The essential oil obtained by the fresh fruit of Risso et Poiteau is used worldwide in aromatherapy to reduce pain, facilitate sleep induction, and/or minimize the effects of stress-induced anxiety. Preclinical pharmacological data demonstrate that bergamot essential oil (BEO) modulates specific neurotransmissions and shows an anxiolytic-relaxant effect not superimposable to that of the benzodiazepine diazepam, suggesting that neurotransmissions, other than GABAergic, could be involved. Several studies on essential oils indicate a role for serotonergic (5-HT) neurotransmission in anxiety.

Pattern of triptans use: a retrospective prescription study in Calabria, Italy.

Triptans are 5-hydroxytryptamine 1B/1D receptor agonists used in moderate to severe migraine attacks as first line when non-specific, symptomatic, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are not effective. To gain insight in the treatment of migraine in the regional context, this retrospective (from January to August of the years 2017 and 2018) study aimed at monitoring the use of triptans approved by the regional health authority in Calabria. The data demonstrate that the overall treatment of migraine with triptans in the different provinces of Calabria falls in the average regional prescription/dispensation.

Neuropharmacology of the Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Dementia and Role of Pain: Essential Oil of Bergamot as a Novel Therapeutic Approach.

Aging of the population makes of dementia a challenge for health systems worldwide. The cognitive disturbance is a serious but not the only issue in dementia; behavioral and psychological syndromes known as neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia remarkably reduce the quality of life. The cluster of symptoms includes anxiety, depression, wandering, delusions, hallucinations, misidentifications, agitation and aggression.

New Trends in Migraine Pharmacology: Targeting Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) With Monoclonal Antibodies.

Migraine is a common neurologic disorder characterized by attacks consisting of unilateral, throbbing headache accompanied by photophobia, phonophobia, and nausea which remarkably reduces the patients' quality of life. Not migraine-specific non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are effective in patients affected by mild episodic migraine whilst in moderate or severe episodic migraine and in chronic migraineurs triptans and preventative therapies are needed. Since these treatments are endowed with serious side effects and have limited effectiveness new pharmacological approaches have been investigated.

Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice.

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) has proven wide evidence of pharmacological antinociceptive effectiveness both in nociceptive and in neuropathic pain models. The antinociceptive properties of BEO for inhalation have not been investigated. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of the inhalation of BEO on formalin-induced nociceptive response in mice.

Neuropharmacological Properties of the Essential Oil of Bergamot for the Clinical Management of Pain-Related BPSDs.

Background: Alzheimer's Disease (AD) accounts for approximately 50% of all cases of dementia and, in spite of the great effort for the development of disease-modifying drugs, a definitive treatment of cognitive impairment is not available yet. A perfect adherence to the current therapy of cognitive decline is needed for a better control of the disease and this is proven to reduce, though not completely abolish, the associated Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSDs) from occurring. This cluster of symptoms, remarkably affecting patients' health-related quality of life (HRQL), is tightly associated with pain states.

Rational Basis for Nutraceuticals in the Treatment of Glaucoma.

Background: Glaucoma, the second leading cause of blindness worldwide, is a chronic optic neuropathy characterized by progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons degeneration and death. Primary open-angle glaucoma (OAG), the most common type, is often associated with increased intraocular pressure (IOP), however other factors have been recognized to partecipate to the patogenesis of the optic neuropathy. IOP-independent mechanisms that contribute to the glaucoma-related neurodegeneration include oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and impaired ocular blood flow.

Opioids Resistance in Chronic Pain Management.

Chronic pain management represents a serious healthcare problem worldwide. Chronic pain affects approximately 20% of the adult European population and is more frequent in women and older people. Unfortunately, its management in the community remains generally unsatisfactory and rarely under the control of currently available analgesics.

Aromatherapy and Aromatic Plants for the Treatment of Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: Clinical Evidence and Possible Mechanisms.

The treatment of agitation and aggression, typical Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSDs) of Alzheimer's Disease (AD), is one of the most complicated aspects of handling patients suffering from dementia. Currently, the management of these symptoms often associated with an increased pain perception, which notably reduces the patients' quality of life (QoL), relies on the employment of antipsychotic drugs. Unfortunately, the use of these pharmacological agents has some limits: in the long term, they do not result in being equally effective as in the first weeks of treatment and they present important side effects.

Bergamot Essential Oil Attenuates Anxiety-Like Behaviour in Rats.

Preclinical studies have recently highlighted that bergamot essential oil (BEO) is endowed with remarkable neurobiolological effects. BEO can affect synaptic transmission, modulate electroencephalographic activity and it showed neuroprotective and analgesic properties. The phytocomplex, along with other essential oils, is also widely used in aromatherapy to minimize symptoms of stress-induced anxiety and mild mood disorders.