Teeth out of proportion: Smaller horse and cattle breeds have comparatively larger teeth.

There are different descriptions of allometric relationships between important components of the mammalian skull. Craniofacial evolutionary allometry describes a pattern of increasing facial cranium in larger skulls. Another body of literature describes disproportionately larger teeth in smaller species or specimens, matching anecdotal observations with dental problems in dwarf breeds whose teeth appear "too large for their skulls.

Modularity patterns in mammalian domestication: Assessing developmental hypotheses for diversification.

The neural crest hypothesis posits that selection for tameness resulted in mild alterations to neural crest cells during embryonic development, which directly or indirectly caused the appearance of traits associated with the "domestication syndrome" (DS). Although representing an appealing unitary explanation for the generation of domestic phenotypes, support for this hypothesis from morphological data and for the validity of the DS remains a topic of debate. This study used the frameworks of morphological integration and modularity to assess patterns that concern the embryonic origin of the skull and issues around the neural crest hypothesis.

Why the long face? Comparative shape analysis of miniature, pony, and other horse skulls reveals changes in ontogenetic growth.

Background: Much of the shape variation found in animals is based on allometry and heterochrony. Horses represent an excellent model to investigate patterns of size-shape variation among breeds that were intentionally bred for extreme small and large sizes.

Methods: We tested whether ponies (wither height < 148 cm) have a diverging size-shape relationship in skull shape as compared to regular-sized horse breeds (wither height > 148 cm, here-after called horses) during ontogenetic growth.

Shape variation and modularity of skull and teeth in domesticated horses and wild equids.

Background: In horses, the morphological changes induced by the process of domestication are reportedly less pronounced than in other species, such as dogs or pigs - although the horses' disparity has rarely been empirically tested. We investigated shape differences and modularity of domesticated horses, Przewalski's horses, donkeys and zebras. Mandibular and tooth shape have been shown to be valuable features for differentiating wild and domesticated forms in some mammals.

On the lack of a universal pattern associated with mammalian domestication: differences in skull growth trajectories across phylogeny.

As shown in a taxonomically broad study, domestication modifies postnatal growth. Skull shape across 1128 individuals was characterized by 14 linear measurements, comparing 13 pairs of wild versus domesticated forms. Among wild forms, the boar, the rabbit and the wolf have the highest proportion of allometric growth, explaining in part the great morphological diversity of the domesticated forms of these species.

Forearm arterial anatomy and flow characteristics: a prospective observational study.

Background: Morphometric data on Caucasian radial and ulnar arteries are limited, with no data on flow interdependence in the forearm arterial circuit.

Methods: A total of 250 upper extremities in 125 patients were evaluated. Ultrasonography was performed and radial and ulnar artery lumen diameters were measured.