Oral administration of bovine milk-derived extracellular vesicles induces senescence in the primary tumor but accelerates cancer metastasis.

The concept that extracellular vesicles (EVs) from the diet can be absorbed by the intestinal tract of the consuming organism, be bioavailable in various organs, and in-turn exert phenotypic changes is highly debatable. Here, we isolate EVs from both raw and commercial bovine milk and characterize them by electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, western blotting, quantitative proteomics and small RNA sequencing analysis. Orally administered bovine milk-derived EVs survive the harsh degrading conditions of the gut, in mice, and is subsequently detected in multiple organs.

Correction to: Defining the role of cytoskeletal components in the formation of apoptopodia and apoptotic bodies during apoptosis.

The original version of the article unfortunately contained a typo in the fourth author name. The author name was incorrectly listed as Rochelle Tixeria. The correct name should be Rochelle Tixeira.

Defining the role of cytoskeletal components in the formation of apoptopodia and apoptotic bodies during apoptosis.

During apoptosis, dying cells undergo dynamic morphological changes that ultimately lead to their disassembly into fragments called apoptotic bodies (ApoBDs). Reorganisation of the cytoskeletal structures is key in driving various apoptotic morphologies, including the loss of cell adhesion and membrane bleb formation. However, whether cytoskeletal components are also involved in morphological changes that occur later during apoptosis, such as the recently described generation of thin apoptotic membrane protrusions called apoptopodia and subsequent ApoBD formation, is not well defined.

Extracellular vesicles secreted by are involved in cell wall remodelling.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous vesicles that are released by cells. In this study, the role of the Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) machinery in the biogenesis of yeast EVs was examined. Knockout of components of the ESCRT machinery altered the morphology and size of EVs as well as decreased the abundance of EVs.

Moving beyond size and phosphatidylserine exposure: evidence for a diversity of apoptotic cell-derived extracellular vesicles .

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that occurs throughout life as part of normal development as well as pathologic processes including chronic inflammation and infection. Although the death of a cell is often considered as the only biological outcome of a cell committed to apoptosis, it is becoming increasingly clear that the dying cell can actively communicate with other cells via soluble factors as well as membrane-bound extracellular vesicles (EVs) to regulate processes including cell clearance, immunity and tissue repair. Compared to EVs generated from viable cells such as exosomes and microvesicles, apoptotic cell-derived EVs (ApoEVs) are less well defined and the basic criteria for ApoEV characterization have not been established in the field.

Methods for monitoring the progression of cell death, cell disassembly and cell clearance.

Cell death through apoptosis, necrosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis, as well as the clearance of dead cells are crucial biological processes in the human body. Likewise, disassembly of dying cells during apoptosis to generate cell fragments known as apoptotic bodies may also play important roles in regulating cell clearance and intercellular communication. Recent advances in the field have led to the development of new experimental systems to identify cells at different stages of cell death, measure the levels of apoptotic cell disassembly, and monitor the cell clearance process using a range of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo models.

Determining the contents and cell origins of apoptotic bodies by flow cytometry.

Over 200 billion cells undergo apoptosis every day in the human body in order to maintain tissue homeostasis. Increased apoptosis can also occur under pathological conditions including infection and autoimmune disease. During apoptosis, cells can fragment into subcellular membrane-bound vesicles known as apoptotic bodies (ApoBDs).

Monitoring the progression of cell death and the disassembly of dying cells by flow cytometry.

The use of annexin A5 (A5) and either propidium iodide or 7-aminoactinomycin D (PI/7-AAD) stains to measure cell death by flow cytometry has been considered the gold standard by most investigators. However, this widely used method often makes the assumption that there are only three types of particles in a sample: viable, apoptotic and necrotic cells. To study the progression of cell death in greater detail, in particular how apoptotic cells undergo fragmentation to generate membrane-bound vesicles known as apoptotic bodies, we established a flow cytometry-based protocol to accurately and rapidly measure the cell death process.