Analgesic efficacy of hydromorphone in American alligators ().

Background: American alligators () are maintained in zoos, aquaria, and farms for educational, research, and production purposes. The standard of veterinary medical care and welfare for captive reptiles requires managing pain and discomfort under conditions deemed painful in mammals. While analgesic efficacy and pharmacokinetic data for several reptile species are published, data with respect to analgesic efficacy in crocodilians are clearly lacking.

PHARMACOKINETICS OF TRAMADOL AND O-DESMETHYLTRAMADOL IN GIANT TORTOISES (, ).

The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of two orally administered doses of tramadol (1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg) and its metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol (M1) in giant tortoises (, ). Eleven giant tortoises (, ) received two randomly assigned, oral doses of tramadol (either 1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg), with a washout period of 3 wk between each dose. The half-life (t½) of orally administered tramadol at 1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg was 11.

Lidocaine constant rate infusion improves the probability of survival in rabbits with gastrointestinal obstructions: 64 cases (2012-2021).

Objective: To determine the survival to discharge rate of rabbits with gastrointestinal obstructions treated with lidocaine constant rate infusion (CRI) and other factors associated with survival.

Animals: Cases of gastrointestinal obstruction in rabbits (n = 56, including 64 events) that had presented to a veterinary teaching hospital from 2012 to 2021.

Methods: This was a retrospective study in which data on rabbits with evidence of gastrointestinal obstruction were extracted from veterinary teaching hospital medical records over a 9-year period.

Treatment of Pain in Reptiles.

This chapter provides an overview of our current understanding of clinical analgesic use in reptiles. Currently, μ-opioid agonist drugs are the standard of care for analgesia in reptiles. Reptile pain is no longer considered a necessary part of recovery to keep the reptile from becoming active too early.

Treatment of Pain in Fish.

This chapter provides an overview of our current understanding of clinical analgesic use in fish. Recently, the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of several analgesic drugs for use in fish have been investigated, and the most important data indicates that μ-opioid agonist drugs (e.g, morphine) are consistently effective as analgesics across fish species.

Analgesic Efficacy of Tramadol and Morphine in White's Tree Frogs ().

Published data are sparse regarding the recognition of clinically relevant pain and appropriate analgesia in amphibians. The amphibian analgesia literature has primarily focused on nociceptive pathways in a single species, the northern leopard frog (). The objective of the current study was to assess the analgesic efficacy and safety of oral tramadol and subcutaneous morphine in a commonly maintained zoo and pet species, White's tree frog ().

Comparison of Thermal and Mechanical Noxious Stimuli for Testing Analgesics in White's Tree Frogs () and Northern Leopard Frogs ().

Determining the clinical efficacy of analgesic drugs in amphibians can be particularly challenging. The current study investigated whether a thermal nociceptive stimulus is useful for the evaluation of analgesic drugs in 2 amphibian species. The objectives of this study were 2-fold: 1) compare 2 models of nociception (thermal and mechanical) using 2 frog species; White's Tree Frogs (; WTF) and Northern Leopard Frogs (; NLF) after administration of saline or morphine sulfate; and 2) evaluate antinociceptive efficacy of morphine sulfate at 2 doses in a common amphibian research species, the NLF, using a mechanical stimulus.

Pharmacokinetics of ceftazidime in Northern leopard frogs () at two different doses and administration routes.

Objective: To determine an optimal ceftazidime dosing strategy in Northern leopard frogs () by evaluation of 2 different doses administered SC and 1 dose administered transcutaneously.

Animals: 44 Northern leopard frogs (including 10 that were replaced).

Procedures: Ceftazidime was administered to frogs SC in a forelimb at 20 mg/kg (n = 10; SC20 group) and 40 mg/kg (10; SC40 group) or transcutaneously on the cranial dorsum at 20 mg/kg (10; TC20 group).

Respiratory and antinociceptive effects of dexmedetomidine and doxapram in ball pythons ().

Objective: To determine the effects of dexmedetomidine, doxapram, and dexmedetomidine plus doxapram on ventilation ([Formula: see text]e), breath frequency, and tidal volume (Vt) in ball pythons () and of doxapram on the thermal antinociceptive efficacy of dexmedetomidine.

Animals: 14 ball pythons.

Procedures: Respiratory effects of dexmedetomidine and doxapram were assessed with whole-body, closed-chamber plethysmography, which allowed for estimates of [Formula: see text]e and Vt.

Evaluation of subcutaneous administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons .

Objective: To evaluate SC administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons

Animals: 12 healthy juvenile ball pythons.

Procedures: In a randomized crossover study, each snake was administered a combination of alfaxalone (5 mg/kg [2.3 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.

COMPARISON OF SUBCUTANEOUS ADMINISTRATION OF ALFAXALONE-MIDAZOLAM-DEXMEDETOMIDINE WITH KETAMINE-MIDAZOLAM-DEXMEDETOMIDINE FOR CHEMICAL RESTRAINT IN JUVENILE BLUE POISON DART FROGS ().

Blue poison dart frogs () are commonly maintained in zoological institutions and are becoming popular in the pet trade industry. Sedation or light anesthesia is required for safe and effective handling of this species. In this study, the sedative effects of subcutaneously administered alfaxalone-midazolam-dexmedetomidine (AMD) (20, 40, 5 mg/kg, respectively) and ketamine-midazolam-dexmedetomidine (KMD) (100, 40, 5 mg/kg, respectively) were compared in a prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover study in juvenile blue poison dart frogs ( = 10).

Effect of injection site on dexmedetomidine-ketamine induced sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether the sedative effects of a combination of dexmedetomidine and ketamine differed when it was administered IM in a hind limb versus a forelimb of leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). DESIGN Randomized crossover study. ANIMALS 9 healthy adult leopard geckos.

Antinociceptive efficacy and respiratory effects of dexmedetomidine in ball pythons (Python regius).

OBJECTIVE To determine antinociceptive efficacy, behavioral patterns, and respiratory effects associated with dexmedetomidine administration in ball pythons (Python regius). ANIMALS 12 ball pythons. PROCEDURES Antinociception was assessed by applying an infrared heat stimulus to the cranioventral surface of snakes during 2 experiments.

Diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease in a harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) with suspected fenbendazole toxicosis.

CASE DESCRIPTION A 14-year-old 4.1-kg (9.02-lb) male harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was evaluated because of vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, and weight loss (decrease of 0.

Urethral diverticulum and urolithiasis in a female guinea pig (Cavia porcellus).

CASE DESCRIPTION A 5-year-old sexually intact female guinea pig was evaluated because of mild dysuria and a subcutaneous mass located cranioventral to the urogenital openings. CLINICAL FINDINGS Non-contrast-enhanced CT and surgical exploration of the distal aspect of the urethra revealed a urethral diverticulum with an intraluminal urolith. Analysis revealed that the urolith was composed of calcium carbonate and struvite.

Comparison of subcutaneous dexmedetomidine-midazolam versus alfaxalone-midazolam sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

Objective: To compare dexmedetomidine-midazolam with alfaxalone-midazolam for sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

Study Design: Prospective, randomized, blinded, complete crossover study.

Animals: Nine healthy adult leopard geckos.

Antinociceptive efficacy of intramuscular administration of morphine sulfate and butorphanol tartrate in tegus (Salvator merianae).

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of IM morphine sulfate or butorphanol tartrate administration in tegus (Salvator merianae). ANIMALS 6 healthy juvenile (12- to 24-month-old) tegus (mean ± SD body weight, 1,484 ± 473 g). PROCEDURES In a crossover study design, tegus were randomly assigned to treatment order, with a minimum washout period of 15 days between treatments.

Bilateral Uveitis and Hyphema in a Catalina Macaw (Ara ararauna × Ara macao ) With Multicentric Lymphoma.

A 20-year-old, female Catalina macaw (Ara ararauna × Ara macao ) was presented with bilateral uveitis and hyphema. The hyphema initially improved with 0.12% prednisolone acetate ophthalmic drops (1 drop OU q4h for 7 days), but the hyphema recurred after the drops were tapered.

Small Mammals: Common Surgical Procedures of Rodents, Ferrets, Hedgehogs, and Sugar Gliders.

Small mammal surgical procedures are a part of clinical veterinary practice and are performed with regularity. Anesthetic and analgesic techniques are important components of any successful small mammal surgical procedure. Many basic surgical principles used in dogs and cats can be directly applied to small mammals, but tissues tend to be smaller and thinner, and hemostasis is critical with small patients due to risk of death with minimal blood loss.

Fish Surgery: Presurgical Preparation and Common Surgical Procedures.

Fish surgical procedures are commonplace in aquaria, zoos, laboratory facilities, and pet clinical practice. To incorporate fish surgery into a clinical setting, an understanding of anatomic differences between mammals and fish, bath anesthetics, and recirculating anesthesia techniques must be developed; a system or different size systems to accommodate anesthesia and surgery of particular species of concern at an institution or practice constructed; and familiar mammalian surgical principles applied with some adaptations. Common surgical procedures in fish include coeliotomy for intracoelomic mass removal, reproductive procedures, gastrointestinal foreign body removal, radiotransmitter placement, and integumentary mass excision.

USE OF CORTICAL BONE FENESTRATION, AUTOGENOUS FREE SKIN GRAFT, AND THERMOGRAPHY FOR WOUND TREATMENT AND MONITORING IN A RED WOLF (CANIS RUFUS GREGORYI).

A 2-yr-old female red wolf (Canis rufus gregoryi) sustained a degloving injury to the left thoracic limb while in a display habitat. Initial attempts to resolve the extensive wound by using conservative measures were unsuccessful. Subsequent treatment using a free skin graft consisted first of establishment of an adequate granulation bed via cortical bone fenestration.

ANESTHETIC INDUCTION AND RECOVERY PARAMETERS IN BEARDED DRAGONS (POGONA VITTICEPS): COMPARISON OF ISOFLURANE DELIVERED IN 100% OXYGEN VERSUS 21% OXYGEN.

Inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps, n=6) were anesthetized for 1 hr using isoflurane in either 100% oxygen or 21% oxygen (FI 21; medical-grade room air). Parameters of anesthetic depth were recorded throughout both induction and recovery by an observer blinded to the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), including the loss and return of withdrawal and righting reflexes, muscle tone, ability to intubate or extubate, and return to spontaneous respiration. Physiologic data were recorded every 5 min throughout the anesthetic procedures, including heart rate, body temperature, end-tidal CO2, hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SpO2), and percent expired isoflurane.