Online level-2 perspective taking for newly learnt symbols.

Humans demonstrate spontaneous sensitivity to other people's perspectives on object identities in online tasks. Evidence shows that this not only involves representing the mere discrepancy between perspectives, but the content of such perspectives as well (level-2 perspective taking/L2PT). However, this evidence comes from studies using culturally grounded symbols which leaves open the possibility that having extensive, easily accessible background knowledge about an object is necessary for the L2PT effect.

Preschoolers retain more details from event sequences 1 week following an in-group demonstration.

Previous research highlights that the learning processes of preschool-aged children are influenced by the cultural group membership of the information sources. As of yet, however, no study has aimed to explore the influence of cultural group membership on the long-term retention of novel information. In the current study, 4-year-old children observed three event sequences that were demonstrated by either an adult speaking their native language or a foreign language speaker.

Can 18-Month-Olds Revise Attributed Beliefs?

Successful social interactions rely on flexibly tracking and revising others' beliefs. These can be revised prospectively, new events leading to new beliefs, or retrospectively, when realizing that an attribution may have been incorrect. However, whether infants are capable of such belief revisions is an open question.

"The Red Spots Are Now Lava, We Shouldn't Step on Them"-The Joint Creation of Novel Arbitrary Social Contexts in Pretend Play.

Pretend play has been extensively studied in developmental science, nevertheless important questions remain about how children engage in and navigate between pretend episodes. In this proposal, we scrutinize childhood pretense from a social cognitive developmental point of view. First, we review previous theories of pretend play structured around important questions that pinpoint some attributes of pretend episodes, such as their transient and socially defined nature.

Angiomyolipoma of the kidney-Clinicopathological analysis of 52 cases.

The renal angiomyolipoma (AML) is a benign tumor characteristically composed of fat, smooth muscle tissue, and vessels. We collected AMLs from our nephrectomy database, reclassified them according to their histological appearance, recorded the demographic, clinical, and pathological parameters, and compared them with oncocytoma (RO) and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Immunohistochemistry was ordered in 41 cases.

If you presume relevance, you don't need a bifocal lens.

We argue for a relevance-guided learning mechanism to account for both innovative reproduction and faithful imitation by focusing on the role of communication in knowledge transmission. Unlike bifocal stance theory, this mechanism does not require a strict divide between instrumental and ritual-like actions, and the goals they respectively fulfill (material vs. social/affiliative), to account for flexibility in action interpretation and reproduction.

Spontaneous attribution of underspecified belief of social partners facilitates processing shared information.

The main question of Theory of Mind research is not only how we represent others' mental states, but also how these representations influence our first-person interaction with our surrounding environment. A novel theory of belief files proposes that we should think about belief tracking as an online, spontaneous, and effortless mechanism giving rise to structured representations, thus easing the use of beliefs in behavior selection. Beliefs are formed by two different sub mechanisms: (1) opening an empty placeholder belief file, for a particular intentional agent, and (2) filling it up with mental content attributed to the agent.

3-4-year-old children's memory flexibility allows adaptation to an altered context.

Imitation provides a reliable method to investigate the developing memory functions in childhood. The present study explored whether 3-4-year-old children are able to revise their previous experiences after a 1 week delay in order to adapt to an altered context. We used a combined short-term (Session 1) and delayed (Session 2) imitation paradigm based on a previous study with 2-year-olds.

Can group representations based on relational cues warrant the rich inferences typically drawn from group membership?

Pietraszewski's model - though promising in many respects - needs to be extended so that it can explain the multitude of rich inferences that people draw from group membership. In this commentary, we highlight some facets of group thinking, especially from the field of developmental psychology, that cannot be unambiguously accounted for by a model that is built solely on relational cues.

Young children expect pretend object identities to be known only by their partners in joint pretence.

The present study examined whether three-year-old children (age = 42-48 months, n = 57; 31 boys) understand that object identities stipulated during pretend play could only be known by people witnessing the stipulation. Children participated in pretend scenarios that included some objects and two experimenters. Two pretend episodes corresponded to an object: one connected to its conventional function, the other to a pretend identity made-up on the spot.

Individuation of agents based on psychological properties in 10 month-old infants.

What makes agents fundamentally different from each other from the viewpoint of a 10-month-old infant? While infants at this age can already individuate human-like objects from non-humanlike ones and self-propelled agents from inert objects, little is known of when and how they start individuating within the domain of agents. What is clear from previous studies is that differences in surface and dynamic features are not sufficient. We hypothesized that mental properties-in this case the agents' preferences-can serve as an individuating property.

Semantic systems are mentalistically activated for and by social partners.

A recently discovered electrophysiological response, the social N400, suggests that we use our language system to track how social partners comprehend language. Listeners show an increased N400 response, when themselves not, only a communicative partner experiences a semantic incongruity. Does the N400 reflect purely semantic or mentalistic computations as well? Do we attribute language comprehension to communicative partners using our semantic systems? In five electrophysiological experiments we identified two subcomponents of the social N400.

Representing social categories based on shared cultural knowledge in adults.

The study investigated whether adults rely on the cues of shared cultural knowledge when forming social category representations. We used a modified version of the memory confusion paradigm, where participants are presented with the photographs of people differing along social category distinctions while listening to utterances associated with the pictures. In the test phase, the task is to match the utterances to the photographs.

One Function One Tool? A Review on Mutual Exclusivity in Tool Use Learning in Human and Non-human Species.

The goal of this review is twofold: first to explore whether mutual exclusivity and functional fixedness overlap and what might be their respective specificities and second, to investigate whether mutual exclusivity as an inferential principle could be applied in other domains than language and whether it can be found in non-human species. In order to do that, we first give an overview of the representative studies of each phenomenon. We then analyze papers on tool use learning in children that studied or observed one of these phenomena.

Multifocal Urinary Tract Metastasis of Colorectal Carcinoma.

Introduction: Secondary urinary tract tumors are uncommon findings and mainly evolve by direct invasion from adjacent organs. Actual metastatic involvement often develops in the urinary bladder, while the upper urinary tract is infrequently affected. In addition, the lungs, breast, and prostate gland are the usual primary sites.

[Angiomyofibroblastoma in a male patient – a case report on a rare paratesticular lesion and review of the literature].

Összefoglaló. A scrotum képalkotó vizsgálóeljárásai közül elsőnek választandó az ultrahang, mivel könnyen hozzáférhető, szenzitivitása és specificitása magas. Szerepe kiemelendő mind az intratesticularis eltérések differenciáldiagnózisában, mind pedig a kevésbé ismert paratesticularis eltérések esetében.

Environmental drivers of forest biodiversity in temperate mixed forests - A multi-taxon approach.

Harmonization of timber production and forest conservation is a major challenge of modern silviculture. For the establishment of ecologically sustainable forest management, the management-related environmental drivers of multi-taxon biodiversity should be explored. Our study reveals those environmental variables related to tree species diversity and composition, stand structure, litter and soil conditions, microclimate, landscape, and land-use history that determine species richness and composition of 11 forest-dwelling organism groups.

The flexibility of early memories: Limited reevaluation of action steps in 2-year-old infants.

This study investigated the flexibility of 2-year-old infants' retrieval and reenactment processes. In a delayed imitation paradigm, children were exposed to a constraint change (implemented by the distance of a target object) affecting the relevance of using a tool to obtain a goal (reach the object). In Experiment 1, during demonstration in the first session the tool was either relevant or irrelevant for reaching the goal, and 1 week later it either lost or gained its relevance, respectively.

Attention in naïve psychology.

In everyday life, mentalizing is nested in a rich context of cognitive faculties and background information that potentially contribute to its success. Yet, we know little about these modulating effects. Here we propose that humans develop a naïve psychological model of attention (featured as a goal-dependent, intentional relation to the environment) and use this to fine-tune their mentalizing attempts, presuming that the way people represent their environment is influenced by the cognitive priorities (attention) their current intentions create.

The effect of language on prosocial behaviors in preschool children.

The present study investigated how linguistic group membership influences prosocial behaviors, namely helpfulness and cooperation, in preschool children. Whilst research indicates that children preferentially direct their prosocial behavior towards members of their own groups, the influence of perceived linguistic group membership on actual helpfulness and cooperation has not been investigated. We presented an experimenter to 4- and 5-year-olds either as a foreigner, who did not speak the local language or as a native person.

Electrophysiological investigation of infants' understanding of understanding.

Social cognition might play a critical role in language acquisition and comprehension, as mindreading may be necessary to infer the intended meaning of linguistic expressions uttered by communicative partners. In three electrophysiological experiments, we explored the interplay between belief attribution and language comprehension of 14-month-old infants. First, we replicated our earlier finding: infants produced an N400 effect to correctly labelled objects when the labels did not match a communicative partner's beliefs about the referents.