Kinematics of Hitting in Youth Baseball: Implications for Skill Development.

This study compared lower extremity, trunk, and upper extremity kinematics between tee and front toss hitting in youth baseball athletes. Twenty youth baseball athletes (14.3±2.

A Model for Causality of Pitching-related Overuse Injuries in Women's Fastpitch Softball.

Fastpitch softball is a popular women's sport, and athletes, particularly pitchers, are at high risk for overuse injury. Softball-related injury rates are low; however, the prevalence of overuse injuries is high. Injuries at the high school and collegiate levels occur early in the season, and approximately 50% of shoulder and elbow injuries in softball are attributable to overuse.

Maximizing the Reliability and Precision of Measures of Prefrontal Cortical Oxygenation Using Frequency-Domain Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

Frequency-domain near-infrared spectroscopy (FD-NIRS) has been used for non-invasive assessment of cortical oxygenation since the late 1990s. However, there is limited research demonstrating clinical validity and general reproducibility. To address this limitation, recording duration for adequate validity and within- and between-day reproducibility of prefrontal cortical oxygenation was evaluated.

Effects of Increasing Pitch Count on Pitch Type Ball Metrics and Release Height in High School Softball Pitchers.

Background: Softball research has investigated changes in physical characteristics, mechanics, and ball speed as elements of fatigue. However, the influence of pitch volume on ball metrics is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of pitch volume on ball performance and release metrics in softball pitchers across different pitch types.

Do Sex and Age Influence Scapular and Thoracohumeral Kinematics During a Functional Task Protocol?

There is mixed evidence on the role that biological sex plays in shoulder biomechanics despite known differences in musculoskeletal disorder prevalence between males and females. Additionally, advancing age may contribute to shoulder kinematic changes. The purpose of this study was to determine if sex and age influenced scapular and thoracohumeral kinematics during a range of functional tasks.

Range of Motion Adaptations During a Simulated Game Exposure in Softball Pitchers.

Hip and shoulder range of motion (ROM) alterations are correlated with increased risk of injury in softball athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate bilateral shoulder and hip ROM adaptation during a simulated softball double-header exposure. It was hypothesized that shoulder and hip ROM would decrease after simulated game exposure and would not return to baseline following a 30-minute break.

Defining humeral axial rotation with optical motion capture and inertial measurement units during functional task assessment.

Humeral motion can be challenging to measure and analyze. Typically, Euler/Cardan sequences are used for humeral angle decomposition, but choice of rotation sequence has substantial effects on outcomes. A new method called True axial rotation calculation may be more precise.

Defining repeatability for scapulothoracic and thoracohumeral motion during the novel work-related activities and functional task (WRAFT) protocol.

Upper limb motion can be challenging to measure and analyze during work or daily life tasks. Further, humeral angle calculation method substantially influences angle outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the repeatability of scapular and humeral kinematics and compare thoracohumeral angle calculation during a work-related and functional task (WRAFT) protocol.

Softball Pitchers' Body Segment Girths Are Associated with Varied Biomechanics at Ball Release of the Pitch.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between pitcher trunk and throwing arm girth with kinematics at ball release of the softball pitch. Softball pitchers can be of various shapes and sizes; however, it is unknown if segment girth might influence pitch biomechanics. Because of the importance of body positioning at ball release of the windmill pitch, this study examined the relationship between segment girth and pitch biomechanics at ball release.

Comparison of scapular kinematics from optical motion capture and inertial measurement units during a work-related and functional task protocol.

Understanding scapular motion during everyday tasks is essential for adequate return-to-work and intervention programming, yet most scapular assessments involve restricted motion analysis within a laboratory setting. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) have been used to track scapular motion, but their validity compared to "gold standard" optical motion capture is not well defined. Further, it is unclear how different IMU sensor placements could affect scapular kinematic outcomes during a functional task protocol.

Comparison of Trunk and Pelvic Kinematics in Youth Baseball Pitchers With and Without Upper Extremity Pain: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Background: Motion of the pelvis and trunk during baseball pitching is associated with increased upper extremity (UE) kinetics. Increased kinetics on the UE may lead to throwing-arm pain in youth pitchers. Limited biomechanical comparisons have been conducted on youth pitchers with and without throwing-arm pain to identify mechanical risk factors associated with pain.

Single-Leg Squat and Reported Pain in Collegiate Softball Pitchers.

Background: Single-leg squat (SLS) performance is related to altered mechanics related to injury during the windmill softball pitch; however, it is unknown if SLS kinematics differ between softball pitchers with and without upper extremity pain.

Purpose/hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to compare knee valgus, trunk rotation, trunk lateral flexion, and trunk flexion during an SLS in collegiate softball pitchers with and without self-reported upper extremity pain. It was hypothesized that those who reported upper extremity pain would show increased compensatory trunk and knee kinematics compared with those without pain.

Pelvis and Trunk Energy Flow in Collegiate Softball Pitchers With and Without Upper Extremity Pain.

Background: The softball pitch is a full-body motion, where efficient proximal to distal energy flow through the kinetic chain is said to reduce stress at the upper extremity. Although altered trunk kinematic parameters are associated with upper extremity pain in softball pitchers, further research is needed to determine whether differences exist in proximal energy flow between softball pitchers with and without pain.

Hypothesis/purpose: To examine pelvis and trunk energy flow during the acceleration phase of the pitch in collegiate softball pitchers with and without upper extremity pain.

An Investigation of Bilateral Symmetry in Softball Pitchers According to Body Composition.

Introduction: High body fat percentage (bf%) is considered a potential injury risk factor for softball pitchers amidst the already high rates of pitching-related injury. Similarly, research points out that large bilateral asymmetries are another risk factor for softball pitchers. As softball pitching is a highly asymmetric sport and the repetitive nature of the windmill pitch places high stress on the body while pitchers are in unbalanced and asymmetric positions, research examining body composition and asymmetry is necessary.

Do Musculoskeletal Disorders Affect Work Tasks in Farmers: A Study of Rural Saskatchewan.

Objective: Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are common among farmers, yet associated difficulty during work is not well understood. The purpose of this study was to determine the connection between MSDs and work-related task difficulty in rural Saskatchewan.

Methods: Rural Saskatchewan farmers and farm workers with history of MSD in the last 5 years ( n = 72) participated via an online survey.

Softball Pitching Propulsion and Performance Differences According to Body Fat Percentage.

Softball pitchers with a high body-fat percentage (bf%) can often be successful, despite the heightened risk of injury associated with high bf%. Given the importance of propulsion during pitching, those with high bf% may have an advantage performance-wise. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the differences in ground reaction force (GRF) development between two groups of pitchers: those with a high-fat percentage (≥32 bf%) and a healthy-fat percentage (<32 bf%).

Athlete body composition influences movement during sporting tasks: an analysis of softball pitchers' joint angular velocities.

Softball pitchers are often above-average size and frequently injured; therefore, it is necessary to understand how biomechanics can change according to pitcher body composition. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between joint peak angular velocities and pitch velocity, as well as examine how pitchers' joint angular velocities differ between high and healthy body-fat percentage (BF%) groups. Forty high-school and college softball pitchers (170.

Don't get tripped up: Haptic modalities alter gait characteristics during obstacle crossing.

The attentional capacity required of haptic modalities while obstacle crossing may limit their effectiveness. Therefore, this study examined the attentional demands of haptic modalities during obstacle crossing. Nineteen healthy young adults walked across a 10 m laboratory floor within two modality blocks using either: 1) light touch on a railing, or 2) pulling haptic anchors.

Segment power analysis of collegiate softball hitting.

The primary aim of this investigation was to describe the energy flow through the kinetic chain during softball hitting using a segmental power analysis. Twenty-three NCAA Division I collegiate softball athletes (20.4 ± 1.

Biomechanics Related to Increased Softball Pitcher Shoulder Stress: Implications for Injury Prevention.

Background: Softball pitchers exhibit high throwing shoulder distraction force, which is a theorized mechanism of throwing shoulder overuse injury. Windmill pitching involves a variety of highly individualistic pitching styles, and certain kinematics preceding ball release likely influence the amount of shoulder stress that a pitcher accrues.

Purpose: To examine the association of trunk and throwing arm kinematics, kinetics, and timing variables with peak throwing shoulder distraction force in high school softball pitchers.

Predicting Shoulder Force to Prevent Injury: Body Fat Mass Increases Shoulder Stress among Pitchers.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between whole body and throwing arm composition and length with throwing shoulder distraction and anterior force. Literature shows a relationship between shoulder force and pain; therefore, as well as between body mass and pain, it was hypothesized that pitchers with greater body fat mass would display increased throwing shoulder force during the acceleration phase of the softball pitch.

Methods: Thirty-eight high school softball pitchers from southern United States agreed to participate (1.

Decreased Shoulder and Elbow Joint Loads During the Changeup Compared With the Fastball and Curveball in NCAA Division I Collegiate Softball Pitchers.

Background: Baseball leagues have implemented pitch count and pitch type restrictions based on biomechanical concepts associated with pitch type. Softball has not yet adopted these practices, although softball pitchers continue to pitch at a high volume and learn multiple pitches at a young age.

Purpose: To examine shoulder and elbow kinetics between the fastball, curveball, and changeup, as well as to provide descriptive upper extremity pain data in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) softball pitchers.

Comparison of Pelvis and Trunk Kinematics Between Youth and Collegiate Windmill Softball Pitchers.

Background: The windmill softball pitch is a dynamic sporting movement that places softball pitchers at high risk of injury. Unlike baseball, there is limited research into the mechanical differences between softball pitchers of varying skill levels.

Purpose/hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to compare pelvis and trunk kinematics between youth and collegiate softball pitchers.

Single-Leg Squat Compensations Are Associated With Softball Pitching Pathomechanics in Adolescent Softball Pitchers.

Background: A lack of lumbopelvic-hip complex (LPHC) stability is often associated with altered pitching mechanics, thus increasing pain and injury susceptibility. The single-leg squat (SLS) is a simple diagnostic tool used to examine LPHC stability.

Purpose: To examine the relationship between trunk compensatory kinematics during the SLS and kinematics at foot contact during the windmill pitch.