The functional morphology of hooding in cobras.

Many snakes, particularly cobras, form as part of a defensive display, a hood, an active lateral expansion of their neck skin and underlying musculature and ribs. We identified muscle groups possibly involved in hooding based on their attachments on the specialized ribs of the neck. We then used a combination of morphology, kinematic analysis, morphometrics, electromyography and muscle stimulation to test hypotheses about the functional basis of hooding.

The forked tongue and edge detection in snakes (Crotalus oreganus): an experimental test.

Many stimulus-detection systems are lateralized to allow for simultaneous comparison of paired stimuli. It has been hypothesized that the deeply forked tongue of snakes and some derived lizards functions as a chemical edge detector where cues gathered by each tine are kept separate to provide two points of lateral odor assessment by the central nervous system via vomeronasal input. While following a chemical trail, one time can be on the trail, the other off, and such differential information prompts the snake to turn back to the trail.

Mechanisms controlling venom expulsion in the western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox.

Although many studies have documented variation in the amount of venom expended during bites of venomous snakes, the mechanistic source of this variation remains uncertain. This study used experimental techniques to examine how two different features of the venom delivery system, the muscle surrounding the venom gland (the Compressor Glandulae in the rattlesnake) and the fang sheath, could influence venom flow in the western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox. Differential contraction of the Compressor Glandulae explained only approximately 30% of the variation in venom flow.

Biomechanics (Communication arising): prey attack by a large theropod dinosaur.

Prey-capture strategies in carnivorous dinosaurs have been inferred from the biomechanical features of their tooth structure, the estimated bite force produced, and their diet. Rayfield et al. have used finite-element analysis (FEA) to investigate such structure-function relationships in Allosaurus fragilis, and have found that the skull was designed to bear more stress than could be generated by simple biting.

Ultrastructure of duvernoy's gland from the wandering garter snake, Thamnophis elegans vagrans (Serpentes, Colubridae).

In addition to the supralabial glands (strips of glandular tissue lying along the maxilla), most snakes of the family Colubridae possess an enlarged oral gland lying behind the eye and emptying near the rear maxillary teeth, the Duvernoy's gland. Duvernoy's gland is most probably homologous to the venom gland of viperid and elapid snakes, and occasionally has been implicated in cases of human envenomation. Although of possible medical concern, there is reason to believe that secretion from this gland serves a biological role different from that of the venom gland, namely a role primarily in digestion rather then largely in rapid prey immobilization.

Ultrastructure of the lung of the rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis oreganus.

Scanning and transmission electron microscopic observations were made on the rattlesnake lung, which has the form of a cigar-shaped bag enclosing a large axial air chamber. The lungs were fixed by tracheal instillation of fixative to preserve the structural features of inflated lungs. An open tracheal groove along the ventral aspect of the lung is the only structural "airway" present.