Detection and genomic characterisation of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes circulating in Cameroon using environmental sampling.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly contagious, economically important disease of livestock and wildlife species. Active monitoring and understanding the epidemiology of FMDV underpin the foundations of control programmes. In many endemic areas, however, veterinary resources are limited, resulting in a requirement for simple sampling techniques to increase and supplement surveillance efforts.

Current evidence of the economic value of One Health initiatives: A systematic literature review.

Funding and financing for One Health initiatives at country level remain challenging as investments commonly require demonstrated evidence of economic value or returns. The objectives of this review were to i) identify, critically analyse and summarise quantitative evidence of the net economic value of One Health initiatives; ii) document methodologies commonly used in the scientific literature; and iii) describe common challenges and any evidence gaps. Scientific databases were searched for published literature following the PRISMA guidelines and an online survey and workshop with subject matter experts were used to identify relevant grey literature.

A longitudinal study of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in dromedary camels.

Background: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was identified in humans in 2012. Since then, 2605 cases and 937 associated deaths have been reported globally. Camels are the natural host for MERS-CoV and camel to human transmission has been documented.

Serological evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in dromedary camels and domestic bovids in Oman.

SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated the ability to infect a wide range of animal species. Here, we investigated SARS-CoV-2 infection in livestock species in Oman and provided serological evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cattle, sheep, goats, and dromedary camel using the surrogate virus neutralization and plaque reduction neutralization tests. To better understand the extent of SARS-CoV-2 infection in animals and associated risks, "One Health" epidemiological investigations targeting animals exposed to COVID-19 human cases should be implemented with integrated data analysis of the epidemiologically linked human and animal cases.

Development of core competencies for field veterinary epidemiology training programs.

A workforce with the adequate field epidemiology knowledge, skills and abilities is the foundation of a strong and effective animal health system. Field epidemiology training is conducted in several countries to meet the increased global demand for such a workforce. However, core competencies for field veterinary epidemiology have not been identified and agreed upon globally, leading to the development of different training curricula.

A systematic approach toward progressive improvement of national antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems in food and agriculture sectors.

The first Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Action Plan on antimicrobial resistance (AMR), published in 2016, identified the need to develop capacity for AMR surveillance and monitoring in food and agriculture sectors. As part of this effort, FAO has developed the "Assessment Tool for Laboratories and AMR Surveillance Systems" (FAO-ATLASS) to assist countries in systematically assessing their AMR surveillance system in food and agriculture. FAO-ATLASS includes two different modules for surveillance and laboratory assessment.

Factors associated with foot-and-mouth disease seroprevalence in small ruminants and identification of hot-spot areas in northern Nigeria.

Many small ruminants infected with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remain asymptomatic, with the capacity to promote silent viral spread within domestic and wildlife species. However, little is known about the epidemiological role played by small ruminants in FMD. In particular, there are few studies that examine FMD seroprevalence, spatial patterns and risk factors for exposure in small ruminants.

PRAGMATIST: A tool to prioritize foot-and-mouth disease virus antigens held in vaccine banks.

Antigen banks have been established to supply foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) vaccines at short notice to respond to incursions or upsurges in cases of FMDV infection. Multiple vaccine strains are needed to protect against specific FMDV lineages that circulate within six viral serotypes that are unevenly distributed across the world. The optimal selection of distinct antigens held in a bank must carefully balance the desire to cover these risks with the costs of purchasing and maintaining vaccine antigens.

The history of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype C: the first known extinct serotype?

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious animal disease caused by an RNA virus subdivided into seven serotypes that are unevenly distributed in Asia, Africa, and South America. Despite the challenges of controlling FMD, since 1996 there have been only two outbreaks attributed to serotype C, in Brazil and in Kenya, in 2004. This article describes the historical distribution and origins of serotype C and its disappearance.

Environmental sampling for the detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus and peste des petits ruminants virus in a live goat market, Nepal.

Livestock markets are considered vital parts of the agricultural economy, particularly in developing countries where livestock keeping contributes to both food security and economic stability. Animals from diverse sources are moved to markets, they mix while they are there and are subsequently redistributed over wide geographic areas. Consequently, markets provide an opportunity for targeted surveillance for circulating pathogens.

Development of a transboundary model of livestock disease in Europe.

Epidemiological models of notifiable livestock disease are typically framed at a national level and targeted for specific diseases. There are inherent difficulties in extending models beyond national borders as details of the livestock population, production systems and marketing systems of neighbouring countries are not always readily available. It can also be a challenge to capture heterogeneities in production systems, control policies, and response resourcing across multiple countries, in a single transboundary model.

Preventing the next pandemic: the power of a global viral surveillance network.

call for a global early warning system to detect viruses with pandemic potential

Foot-and-mouth disease virus infection in the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris), Iran.

Background: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious viral disease, recognised to affect animals in the order Artiodactyla. The disease is rarely fatal in adult animals, however high mortality is associated with neonatal and juvenile infection.

Case Presentation: Five puppies died after being fed lamb carcases, the lambs having died during an outbreak of FMD in Iran.

Parallels, differences and lessons: a comparison of the management of foot-and-mouth disease and COVID-19 using UK 2001/2020 as points of reference.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an extremely infectious viral infection of cloven-hoofed animals which is highly challenging to control and can give rise to national animal health crises, especially if there is a lack of pre-existing immunity due to the emergence of new strains or following incursions into disease-free regions. The 2001 FMD epidemic in the UK was on a scale that initially overwhelmed the national veterinary services and was eventually controlled by livestock lockdown and slaughter on an unprecedented scale. In 2020, the rapid emergence of COVID-19 has led to a human pandemic unparalleled in living memory.

A framework for reviewing livestock disease reporting systems in high-risk areas: assessing performance and perceptions towards foot and mouth disease reporting in the Thrace region of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey.

Disease reporting is an essential frontline component of surveillance systems, particularly for detecting incursions of new and emerging diseases. It has the advantages of being comprehensive and continuous, with the potential to reduce the time of disease detection and the extent of consequent spread. A number of exotic diseases, including sheep and goat pox, lumpy skin disease, peste des petits ruminants and foot and mouth disease have historically entered into south-eastern Europe through the Thrace region, which extends across neighbouring areas of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey.

Considerations for design and implementation of vaccine field trials for novel foot-and-mouth disease vaccines.

Vaccines are commonly used to control Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) in endemic regions and form an important part of contingency plans for FMD-free countries. Conventional FMD vaccines have numerous limitations, and the U.S.

Environmental Sampling as a Low-Technology Method for Surveillance of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in an Area of Endemicity.

Environmental sampling enables disease surveillance beyond regular investigation of observed clinical cases, extending data on the circulation of a pathogen in a specific area. Developing straightforward, low-technology methods suitable for use under field conditions is key to the inclusion of such approaches alongside traditional surveillance techniques. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is an economically important livestock pathogen, affecting cloven-hoofed livestock in many countries.

Exploiting serological data to understand the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes circulating in Libya.

Sporadic outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) have occurred in Libya for almost fifty years. During the spring of 2013, a countrywide serosurvey was undertaken to assess the level of FMD virus circulation and identify FMD virus serotypes in the country. A total of 4221 sera were collected, comprising samples from large ruminants (LR; n=1428 samples from 357 farms) and small ruminants (SR; n=2793 samples from 141 farms).

Serological profile of foot-and-mouth disease in wildlife populations of West and Central Africa with special reference to Syncerus caffer subspecies.

The role which West and Central African wildlife populations might play in the transmission dynamics of FMD is not known nor have studies been performed in order to assess the distribution and prevalence of FMD in wild animal species inhabiting those specific regions of Africa. This study reports the FMD serological profile extracted from samples (n = 696) collected from wildlife of West and Central Africa between 1999 and 2003. An overall prevalence of FMDV NSP reactive sera of 31.

Impact of foot-and-mouth disease on milk production on a large-scale dairy farm in Kenya.

The economic impact of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has been poorly characterised particularly in endemic settings where such knowledge is important for decision-making on disease control with limited resources. In order to address this, a study was designed using individual animal data from a large-scale dairy farm in Kenya to estimate the impact of an FMD outbreak due to serotype SAT2 virus on milk yield. Daily milk yields from 218 mainly European-breed cattle that were lactating during the 29-day outbreak period were considered in the analysis.

Surveillance of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in susceptible wildlife and domestic ungulates in Southeast of Bulgaria following a FMD case in wild boar.

Following a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) case of serotype O in wild boar in Southeast of Bulgaria, notified in January 2011 and eleven FMD outbreaks in livestock, a control and eradication plan according to the EU legislation was implemented. Based on the epidemiological considerations a "Cordon Sanitaire" along the border to Turkey, consisting of a defined infected area (1240 km(2)) and two areas of risk (2160 km(2)) was established. Within these areas a total of 812 wild boar, 68 roe deer, 7 red deer and 2 mouflons, hunted between February 2011 and January 2012, were tested for the presence of FMD.

Reconstruction of the transmission history of RNA virus outbreaks using full genome sequences: foot-and-mouth disease virus in Bulgaria in 2011.

Improvements to sequencing protocols and the development of computational phylogenetics have opened up opportunities to study the rapid evolution of RNA viruses in real time. In practical terms, these results can be combined with field data in order to reconstruct spatiotemporal scenarios that describe the origin and transmission pathways of viruses during an epidemic. In the case of notifiable diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), these analyses provide important insights into the epidemiology of field outbreaks that can support disease control programmes.

Options for control of foot-and-mouth disease: knowledge, capability and policy.

Foot-and-mouth disease can be controlled by zoo-sanitary measures and vaccination but this is difficult owing to the existence of multiple serotypes of the causative virus, multiple host species including wildlife and extreme contagiousness. Although intolerable to modern high-production livestock systems, the disease is not usually fatal and often not a priority for control in many developing countries, which remain reservoirs for viral dissemination. Phylogenetic analysis of the viruses circulating worldwide reveals seven principal reservoirs, each requiring a tailored regional control strategy.