Imaging in fetal genital anomalies.

Genital anomalies are a heterogeneous group of congenital pathologies that have become increasingly relevant since the Chicago Consensus of 2005. Their postnatal diagnosis has developed significantly in the last two decades, while prenatal diagnosis seems to be underdeveloped, with few protocols available, fragmented scientific literature, and low diagnostic rates. This review aims to examine the current status of this subspecialty from the perspective of prenatal imaging.

Stretched penile length at birth: a systematic review.

Background: Micropenis is an endocrinological condition that is habitually observed at birth. Diagnosis is made by measuring the stretched penile length, a method established 80 years ago. Discrepancies in the normative data from recent studies raise the need for a current revision of the methodology.

Sonographic evaluation of fetal scrotum, testes and epididymis.

External male genitalia have rarely been evaluated on fetal ultrasound. Apart from visualization of the penis for fetal sex determination, there are no specific instructions or recommendations from scientific societies. This study aimed to review the current knowledge about prenatal diagnosis of the scrotum and internal structures, with discussion regarding technical aspects and clinical management.

Third trimester ultrasound. A long-standing debate.

Third trimester ultrasound has long been in obstetrics a topic of debate. This issue is framed in a historical debate on the effectiveness of routine obstetrical ultrasound and two opposing trends originated in America and Europe, respectively. Primary function of this ultrasound has been to detect fetal growth restriction, but no study has shown evidence of improving perinatal outcomes.

Fetal sex discordance.

Fetal sex discordance is an entity that is becoming more frequent due to the expansion of the cfDNA for prenatal diagnosis. Its incidence can be estimated in 1/1500-2000 pregnancies, a frequency as high as that of some common chromosomopathies. The causes of this phenomenon are multiple and diverse, ranging from laboratory errors to important pathologies such as disorders of sexual differentiation.

Sonographic measure techniques of fetal penile length.

Postnatal penile length is a reliable, standardized, and widely used marker for the diagnosis of genitourinary pathology, as well as genetic and hormonal disorders. In contrast, prenatal diagnosis has not been developed equally and there is a lack of relevant literature. Our objective is to review the studies on fetal penile length, and apply findings to clinical practice.