Complement 3 Receptor Expression in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes.

Background: According to the World Health Organization, as of 2014 9% of the world's adult population is affected by diabetes. Uncontrolled diabetes is a pro-inflammatory process that increases generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Methods: The production of ROS leads to a chronic increase in oxidative stress which results in an increased susceptibility to infections.

Liposomal Glutathione Supplementation Restores TH1 Cytokine Response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in HIV-Infected Individuals.

Cytokines are signaling biomolecules that serve as key regulators of our immune system. CD4(+) T-cells can be grouped into 2 major categories based on their cytokine profile: T-helper 1 (TH1) subset and T-helper 2 (TH2) subset. Protective immunity against HIV infection requires TH1-directed CD4 T-cell responses, mediated by cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-12, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).

Glutathione synthesis is compromised in erythrocytes from individuals with HIV.

We demonstrated that the levels of enzymes responsible for the synthesis of glutathione (GSH) such as glutathione synthase (GSS), glutamate-cysteine ligase-catalytic subunit (GCLC), and glutathione reductase (GSR) were significantly reduced in the red blood cells (RBCs) isolated from individuals with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and this reduction correlated with decreased levels of intracellular GSH. GSH content in RBCs can be used as a marker for increased overall oxidative stress and immune dysfunctions caused by HIV infection. Our data supports our hypothesis that compromised levels of GSH in HIV infected individuals' is due to decreased levels of GSH-synthetic enzymes.